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Ube IRiiral Science Series 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 



THE FAEM WOODLOT 



XTbe IRural Science Series 


The Soil. King- 


The Horse. Roberts. 


The Spraying of Plants. Lodeman- 


How to Choose a Farm. Hunt. 


Milk and Its Products. Wing- Enlarged 


Forage Crops. Voorhees. 


and Revised. 


Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. 


The Fertility of the Land. Roberis. 


Lipman. 


The Principles of Fruit-Crowing. 


The Nursery-Book. Bailey. 


Bailey. 


Plant-Breeding. Bailey. 4th Edition, 


Bush-Fruits. Card- 


revised. 


Fertilizers. Voofhees. 


The Forcing-Book. Bailey. 


The Principles of Agriculture. Bailey. 


The Pruning-Book. Bailey. 


15th edition, revised- 


Fruit-Growing in Arid Regions. Pad- 


Irrigation and Drainage. King- 


dock and Whipple. 


The Farmstead. Roberts- 


Rural Hygiene. Ogden. 


Rural Wealth and Welfare. Fair- 


Dry-Farming. Widtsoe. 


child. 


Law for the American Farmer. Green. 


The Principles of Vegetable-Garden- 


Farm Boys and Girls. McKeever. 


ing. Bailey. 


The Training and Breaking of Horses. 


Farm Poultry. Watson. Enlarged and 


Harper. 


Revised. 


Sheep-Farming in North America. 


The Feeding of Animals. Jordan. 


Craig. 


The Farmer's Business Handbook. 


Cooperation in Agriculture. Powell. 


Roberts. 


The Farm Woodlot. Cheyney and 


The Diseases of Animals. Mayo. 


Went ling. 




Fig. 1. — The Ohio buckeye (AiJscidus glabra). 



THE FARM WOODLOT 



A HANDBOOK OF FORESTRY FOR THE 

FARMER AND THE STUDENT 

IN AGRICULTURE 



BY 



E. G. CHEYNEY 

DIRECTOR OF THE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 

AND 

J. P. WENTLING 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY 
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1914 

All rights reserved 






Copyright, 1914, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 

Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1914. 



JUN-4I9I4 



J. 8. Cushlng Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



©CI,A37C180 



^ 



/ 



THE LATE 
DEAN SAMUEL B. GEEEN 

TO WHOSE ENERGY AND FORESIGHT THE PRESENT 

DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY IN MINNESOTA 

IS LARGELY DUE, THIS BOOK IS 

DEDICATED 



PREFACE 

It is the purpose of this book to aid the farmer in the 
establishment, care, and utilization of such small patches 
or plantations of timber as may be maintained in connec- 
tion with the farm. The actual operations and the infor- 
mation necessary to conduct them are described accurately, 
we hope, but in a brief and popular style. The history and 
significance of the forests are briefly sketched as a back- 
ground for the more specific data which apply directly to 
the woodlot, but the complicated and technical problems 
which are encountered only in the management of large 
tracts of forest have been carefully avoided. 

It is hoped that the volume will prove of value to the 
woodlot owner as a handbook in the proper management 
of his tree crop, and as a textbook for the agricultural 
student, who should be familiar with the possibilities of 
all his farm lands. 

The authors are under obligation to the United States 
Forest Service for plates 1, 2, 10, 11, 12, 14, 18, 24, 25, 27, 
29, 30, 33, 34, 36 to 54, and 56 to 62 inclusive. 

E. G, CHEYNEY, 
J. P. WENTLING. 

University Fakm, St. Paul, Minn., 
May 1, 1914. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

PAGES 

The Significance of the Forest ..... 1-14 

Forest economics, 2 — the classification of lands, 5 — 
the prevailingly unprofitable farm lands, 10 — products 
of the woodlot, 12 

CHAPTER II 
The Place of the Forest in Farm Management . . 15-28 
Capabilities of the woodlot, 17 — locating the wood- 
lot, 19 — summary of previous discussions, 21 — the 
clearing of a farm, 23 

CHAPTER III 

The Growth of the Tree 29-39 

Functions of different parts, 29 — life history of the 
tree, 36 

CHAPTER IV 
Dendrology. ......... 40-90 

The conifers, 42 — the pines, 43 — the larches, 46 — 
the spruces, 47 — firs, 49 — hemlocks, 50 — white cedar, 
51 — red cedar, 52 — the broadleaf trees, 52 — maples, 
54 — ashes, 60 — oaks, 64 — chestnut, 71 — beech, 72 — 
elms, 73 — poplars, 76 — willows, 80 — birches, 82 — 
hornbeams, 84 — walnuts, 85 — hickories, 87 — locusts, 88 
ix . 



Contents 



CHAPTER V 
Practical Sylviculture or Regeneration of Woodlots 
Natural regeneration, 91 — selection of system, 92 — 
strip system, 94 — group system, 96 — coppice system, 
96 — direct seeding, 98 — seeding and planting, 103 — 
collecting and storing seeds, 107 — the farm nursery, 
112 — growing coniferous seedlings, 112 — growing broad- 
leaf seedlings, 119 — spring operations, 123 — field plant- 
ing of nursery stock, 126 — treatment after planting, 129 
— woodlot plantations in mixture, 130 



PAGES 

91-133 



CHAPTER VI 
Practic*.l Sylviculture — Work in the Woodlot 

Time of thinning, 143 — kind of thinning, 146 — re- 
sults of thinnings, 149 



134-152 



CHAPTER VII 

Forest Protection 

Fire, 153 — grazing, 160 — mismanagement, 165 — 
trespass, 166 — windfall, 167 — sunscald, 168 — insects, 
168 — gypsy moth, 170 — brown-tail moth, 171 — pine- 
destroying beetle, 174 — spruce-destroying beetle, 175 — 
elm-leaf beetle, 177 — bronze birch borer, 178 — forest 
tent caterpillar, 179 — fall web-worm, 180 — the locust 
borer, 181 



153-182 



CHAPTER VIII 

Forest Mensuration 183-205 

The unit of measurement, 183 — allowance for defects 
in scaling, 187 — cordwood, 192 — the height of a tree, 
194 — valuation survey, 196 — stem analyses, 199 — 
cruising methods, 200 



Contents xi 

CHAPTER IX 

PAOEB 

Forest Utilization 206-224 

For construction timbers, 207 — fence posts and rails, 
208 — railroad ties, 209 — implement parts, 210 — fire- 
wood, 211 — logging, 213 — felling, 213 — dividing the 
logs, 215 — skidding, 216 — hauling, 218 — the chief 
uses of our common woods, 219 

CHAPTER X 

By-products of the Northern Woodlot . . . 225-237 

Maple sirup and sugar, 225 — the sugar maple, 226 — 
season, 227 — equipment, 228 — tapping the trees, 229 
— collecting sap, 230 — boiling the sap, 230 — making 
sirup, 230 -^ sugaring-off, 232 — yield per tree, 233 — 
effect on tree, 233 — wintergreen oil from black birch, 
235 — tanning materials, 235 — specifications of extract 
wood, 237 

CHAPTER XI 

The Durability and Preservation op Woods . . 238-258 
Factors influencing durability, 239 — naturally dura- 
ble woods, 241 — substitutes, 242 — cause of rot, 243 — 
method of seasoning logs and timber, 245 — seasoning 
lumber, 245 — coating of timbers, 246 — coal tar, 247 — 
oil paint,, 247 — lime whitewash, 247 — charring, 248 — 
general rules on preserving timbers, 248 — preserving 
materials, 250 — brush method, 250 — dipping, 251 — 
open-tank treatment, 252 

CHAPTER XII 

Arboriculture and Ornamental Planting . . . 259-276 
Selection of ornamental trees, 259 — transplanting 
large trees, 263 — pruning, 266 — to improve shape of 
tree, 267 — how to prune, 269 — table of ornamental 
trees, 270 



xii Contents 



CHAPTER XIII 

PAGES 

History of the Forest 277-300 

Development in Germany, 277 — the North American 
experience, 282 — Forest Service in the United States, 
287 — development of forests in Canada, 292 



CHAPTER XIV 
Forest Influences ........ 301-320 

Influence on precipitation, 302 — on run-off, 302 — 
erosion, 308 — lessening of evaporation, 312 

CHAPTER XV 

Tables and Rules 321-337 

Relative hardness of woods, 321 — fuel value and 
weight of dry wood, 322 — weights of cordwood, 324 — 
land measure, 324 — weight per 1000 of seasoned lum- 
ber, 325 — well-seasoned fuel, 825 — cordwood on an 
acre, 326 — shape of the ax, 327 — tables of gi'owth, 
328 — yield tables, 331 — volume tables, 333 — table 
showing durability of fence posts, 337 



THE FARM WOODLOT 



THE FARM WOODLOT 

CHAPTER I 
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FOREST 

Farm forestry is the raising of a timber crop on a farm 
or in conjunction with usual agricultural operations. It 
differs from other or general forestry only in the extent of 
its operations. In a broad way, all forestry is agriculture 
because it is the rearing of a crop from the land. The 
United States Forest Service is one of the divisions or 
parts of the Department of Agriculture. Forestry is 
taught in the colleges of agriculture. Professional for- 
estry is only that large application requiring all of one's 
time and demanding special preparation as a life work. 

Farmers must undertake to grow timber crops with as 
much care and forethought as they produce other crops. 
In many parts of the United States and Canada the forest 
must be planted outright ; in other regions it is a question 
of maintaining and improving the natural forest. In any 
case, the farmer must recognize not only the value of 
wood and timber to himself, but also the importance of 
the forest to the country and to mankind at large. 

It should be understood at the beginning that forestry 
has to do with woods, and not with city planting, shade 
trees, or home lawns or parks. Separate trees do not 

B 1 



2 The Farm Woodlot 

make a forest any more than separate buildings make a 
city. The term "city forestry" is a contradiction. A 
wood or forest has its own hfe, and it produces and it 
meets a certain set of conditions. The cultivation of 
separate trees is arboriculture ; if the subjects are fruit 
trees, the cultivation of them falls in the domain of po- 
mology. 

FOREST ECONOMICS 

The forests have never received the proper credit for 
the great part they have played in the rapid development 
and civilization of this country. So strenuous was the 
struggle of the early settlers to subdue the forest and wrest 
from it the land necessary for their farms, and so omni- 
present was that forest, that it came to be considered as an 
enemy to be fought ; the benefits accruing from it were 
lost in the sum of injuries. 

And yet that very abundance of forests — so often 
considered as a curse — was an enormous factor in the 
civilizing of the country, in the rapid rise in the Ameri- 
can standard of living. Lumber was at that time by far 
the cheapest building material. This cheapness of lum- 
ber brought a neat house within the reach of every man, 
and with the neat house comes the increased pride in the 
home, the increased self-respect and with it the rise in the 
standard of living. 

Men with no capital at all could hew themselves a 
home from the forests. With an ax they built log cabins. 
In the winter they worked in logging camps and earned 
the money on which they could live while they cleared 
the land and started their farms. Fence material grew 
in the fields. Fuel was everywhere. 



The Significance of the Forest 3 

Later, settlement moved westward to the prairie and 
the plains. Sod huts for years were the only homes they 
knew. The dread of the winter was acute because of the 
scarcity of fuel. The building of good homes and towns 
was slow on account of the lack of building material. It 
was only the construction of railroads that carried civili- 
zation and comfort rapidly across these treeless areas, 
and much of the freight in the earlier days was wood in 
one form or another. Even the rapid building of the 
many railroads was due to the abundance of tie timbers. 
The railroads, the great civilizing highways of the prairies, 
are laid on millions of wooden ties. 

Nor does wood play a much less important part in the 
world to-day. In spite of the innumerable substitutes 
that have been brought into use, the wood consumption 
is greater per capita than it was in the days of early settle- 
ment. For every substitute introduced, many new uses 
for wood have been discovered. While it is possible by 
care and economy of use greatly to reduce the per capita 
consumption of wood, the experience of European coun- 
tries has shown that no nation can enjoy the highest 
prosperity without the produce of forests. 

While there are certain parts of this country in which 
the timber supply has run far short of the demand, the 
development of our transportation facilities has been such 
that other timbered sections have always been able to 
supply the want without hardship to the denuded section. 
Thus it is that the sources of lumber have been pushed far 
back into the mountainous regions of the West and the 
less densely populated parts of the Southeast, without 
the knowledge being very painfully impressed upon the 



4 The Farm Woodlot 

people of the East and the Central States, their own 
timber supply having long since fallen far below their 
needs. This cannot continue and the time will come, and 
that at no very distant future, when there will not be 
enough forests left in the whole United States to supply 
the demand. Nor is there much hope of very lasting 
supplies being available for us in other countries. America 
is the last great treasure-house of virgin timber in the 
northern hemisphere. The timber of South America, 
the only southern continent that has a great excess, is 
not suitable to our needs. The much talked-of forests 
of Canada are wholly inadequate to supply the demands 
of two nations for any length of time. 

It is imperative that the United States shall grow the 
timber necessary for its own use, and that a beginning be 
made at once. Already the time necessary to grow the 
timber for our own needs is short. We may call our 
country an agricultural country and a manfacturing coun- 
try; but classify it as we may, it must be a timber-pro- 
ducing country or our other interests will inevitably suffer. 

At present, the care of our forests, reproduction of our 
old forests and the creation of new ones are neglected, 
because it is said that such work will not pay. The 
experience of European countries, most of which have 
passed through exactly the same stages of development 
as ours, proves conclusively that it does pay. It goes 
back directly to the old question of supply and demand. 
It is necessary only for the demand sufficiently to exceed 
the supply to make it pay to raise trees on what is now our 
most valuable agricultural land. This condition, however, 
will never obtain except in peculiar districts, because, and 



The Significance of the Forest 5 

only because, we have enough poorer land to produce all 
the timber we shall need. 

Germany at one time had a much larger area of forest 
than she needed. At that time, as with us now, they cut 
the timber needed without reference to the future. It 
did not pay them to grow new forests while there was a 
sufficient supply from the old ones. This continued until 
the area of timber land was reduced to a low percentage. 
As the supply diminished, the price increased until it was 
apparent that some of the poorer qualities of land being 
used for ordinary agriculture would produce more revenue 
if devoted to the growing of forests. When the forested 
area became again too large, the prices fell and some of 
the forest land reverted to general agriculture. These 
trial balances showed plainly that about twenty-six per 
cent of the entire land area had to be devoted to timber 
growth if the proper balance was to be utilized to the 
greatest financial advantage. 

The classification of lands 

Here is the crux of the whole question of the develop- 
ment of our country, — the classification of our lands so 
that they may be used in the most productive capacity. 
Up to the present time this has not been done. All efforts 
in this direction have been unsatisfactory because they 
have not been based on the proper data. A chemical 
analysis of soil establishes certain facts in regard to its 
chemical constituents ; in certain rare instances it deter- 
mines the possibility or impossibility of that soil support- 
ing a certain kind of plant growth ; it may indicate that 
a soil is chemically suited for certain crops ; it shows the 



6 The Farm Woodlot 

effects of different vegetation on the soil, the elements 
used by dijfferent plants, and indicates the best method 
of increasing fertility ; but as a means of determining the 
true economic value of that soil it is wholly inadequate. 

The result is the same with the physical geological 
analysis. It brings out certain facts regarding the soil 
that are of value in testing the different theories of growth, 
and in determining the results of various cultural opera- 
tions. It does not touch the question of economic values. 

Reconnaissance, biological and ecological surveys de- 
termine the kind of vegetation that the soil now sup- 
ports, and the data secured in this way may be used by 
the application of certain empirical laws to predict what 
kind of commercial crops may be grown more or less 
successfully on that quality of soil. But even then, al- 
though they give more reliable data on the possibilities 
of plant growth, they do not determine the economic 
value of the soil. 

Why, then, are all these methods inadequate ? For the 
very sufficient reason that the economic value of the land 
depends only partly on its quality, and is in many cases 
entirely independent of it. The value depends wholly on 
economic conditions that may or may not involve the 
quality of the soil as a factor ; it may be a negligible 
factor to-day and of vast importance to-morrow, and vice 
versa. A piece of land in Nebraska ideal for the produc- 
tion of corn had no economic value a hundred years ago ; 
to-day its corn-producing capacity is worth $100 per 
acre. And yet there are parts of that very corn land that 
are to-day more valuable for other purposes, wholly inde- 
pendent of its quality. 



The Significance of the Forest 7 

This shows that the economic value of land cannot be 
permanently fixed, nor its use determined once for all 
time. The use, the value, and hence the classification of 
all land is subject to change with differing conditions in 
the commercial world, and no inherent qualities of the 
soil can bind it permanently to one particular use. What, 
then, is the true basis of land value and hence land classi- 
fication? Clearly, the productive capacity of land is 
governed by economic conditions only, — conditions that 
are subject to change and that may change completely 
the productive capacity, and hence the classification. It 
is these changing conditions that are ignored by ordinary 
methods of classification. More depends on the price 
of timber and the price of grain than on the quality of the 
soil. If these premises are true, — and no evidence can be 
produced against them, — a permanent classification of land 
is not practicable. 

In the near future, — in fact it is already upon us, — 
the question of the division of our lands into the two great 
classes of tillable and forest land will be a pressing 
one. How shall we meet it? On what shall the classi- 
fication be based? Once and for all it must be clearly 
understood that such classification is only temporary and 
subject to correction at any time. With this in mind, 
we must proceed on the only just basis : a comparison of 
the net revenues obtainable from the land under other 
crops and under forestry. The revenue from farm crops 
is usually available from pieces of similar land in the im- 
mediate vicinity. The production of the forest is a little 
harder to determine and a little less certain, but it can 
be secured. A study of the forest growth on the nearest 



8 The Farm Woodlot 

similar land will furnish the data for calculating the future 
value of the forest crop, and the conversion of these figures 
into terms of annual revenues will make possible compari- 
son with usual agricultural revenues. Since the forest data 
are not based on actual results obtained on that land, a 
margin of safety must be allowed. On the other hand, 
the trend of lumber prices is upward and the tendency 
toward increased cost of producing other agricultural crops 
must be carefully studied. We find ourselves involved in 
studies of growth, fertility, market and labor conditions. 
This is a complicated problem, but it must be solved if we 
are to realize the best possible returns from our land in the 
future. 

The greater part of our land, when considered in the 
mass, is too clearly of either one class or the other for its 
use to be questioned. There are, however, two classes of 
land that are near the border line, the use of which 
must be decided by careful study : these are the farm 
lands that are so run down as to produce little revenue or 
that have lost out in the competition with cheaper land 
in the West, and the undeveloped land that was originally 
forest land and has not yet been cultivated. The dis- 
position of these lands is very important, for its improper 
use means a tremendous loss to individuals, and more 
especially to the nation. 

As an example of this doubtful class, the " hill 
lands" of New York or some of the poor farm lands of 
New England may be considered. Some of these lands 
have, never yielded an income under tillage and should 
never have been cleared ; others yielded a small net revenue 
when first cleared, but have since ceased to be profitable. 



The Significance of the Forest 9 

Some of these lands have been known to yield as high as 
$ 1.50 per annum net profits to the acre under forest, even 
without care. Under proper management, this could be 
doubled or trebled. The capital invested is next to 
nothing and the labor expended is small. This, it is to 
be remembered, is true of lands that will not pay any 
net returns under usual agricultural crops, and it is true 
of practically all such lands that are not swampy. 

Another example of doubtful land classification is the 
jack-pine land of the Lake States. It will yield a small 
but respectable yearly revenue under timber. Under 
other farm crops the yields are so small as to make profits 
doubtful. 

But even in such cases, the classification cannot be 
more than temporary; and is often reversed by outside 
influences. Some of the "hill lands" near the railroad 
stations may show profits from usual agricultural crops, 
while those farther away are no longer cultivated. Some 
of the jack-pine land which can be fertilized and is properly 
located may yield a large revenue in vegetables. A change 
in the location of a railroad might upset the whole scheme. 

There are, many sections — usually the poorer ones — 
which consider it a disgrace to have any of their lands 
classified as non-agricultural, or more strictly as non-cul- 
tivable. They think that it gives the section a bad name, 
that it will keep away settlers. This is a mistaken idea. 
It would be much better frankly to divide the land into 
classes and devote each class to its proper use. How much 
better for the community is a thrifty forest yielding its 
steady income, than a farm on which some poor man is 
wearing away his very soul and growing poorer every year ! 



10 



The Farm Woodlot 



The prevailingly unprofitable farm lands 

In some cases, there are farms on which all the land is 
of a high tillage quality, too valuable as a crop-producer 
to be devoted to other purposes. There would be no place 
for a woodlot. But even under these conditions, if they 
extend over a large enough area, a point will be reached 




Fig. 2. — Two crops — maize, and the farm forest. 

at which the products of the woodlot will become so high- 
priced that it will pay to raise forest trees on a certain 
proportion of that good cultivable soil. That is, the prod- 
ucts of the woodlot would be more valuable than the 
other crops that could be raised on that same land. 
Should the area devoted to woodlots become too large, 



The Significance of the Forest 11 

the prices would fall and some of the lots would revert to 
other agriculture. That is true no matter how valuable 
the land may be. 

On most farms, in no matter what section of the coun- 
try, a certain percentage of the land yields but a small 
profit — or none at all — under farm crops. In ninety 
nine cases out of a hundred, such land is abandoned and 
lies absolutely idle and a drag on the remainder of the 
farm, for it does not even pay its own taxes. That is poor 
economy. Why abandon a piece of land merely because 
it does not yield quite so high a revenue as the remainder ? 
Why narrow our scheme of management by confining it 
to the land best suited to certain crops ? Abandoned land 
on a farm is always a sign of shiftlessness or of an un- 
developed plan. Each plat should be devoted to the pur- 
pose for which it is suited, and rare indeed is the land that 
is best suited to idleness. The farmer's problem includes 
the management of his whole farm, not of some one par- 
ticular crop, and his scheme of management should include 
as careful a plan for the poor land as for that of the best 
quality; in fact the poorer lands usually require more 
careful planning. 

The best general solution for the utilization of this 
unprofitable farm land is to make it a woodlot. This fits 
readily into any scheme of farm management, produces a 
good profit and adds to the value of the farm in many 
ways. No land on the farm is of such poor quality that it 
will not support tree growth, and some land of the poorest 
fertility will produce excellent crops of certain species of 
trees. The little work connected with it comes in the win- 
ter, when it does not interfere with any of the farm work. 



12 The Farm Woodlot 

When the forest is already standing on the waste land, 
as is usually the case in natural forest regions, the handling 
of the woodlot becomes a question of proper management 
to improve its sylvicultural condition and to increase the 
growth. In a prairie region, or where the original forest 
has been cut away, it is a question of selecting the proper 
species for planting and caring for the plantation so as to 
get the greatest profits. All those operations are described 
in the chapter on sylviculture. 

Products of the woodlot 

As already stated the woodlot increases the value of the 
farm in many ways. Probably the most important feature 
of the woodlot in most sections is its production of fuel. 
Most farmers use wood entirely for fuel. If this fuel is 
not produced on the farm, it usually must be bought at 
cash outlay — we are considering a settled community 
in which all the wild lands are under private ownership 
(for that will soon be the condition everywhere through- 
out the country) — and in addition will have to be hauled 
for long distances. The bulkiness of the material makes 
this hauling alone very expensive. A woodlot under 
proper management will easily yield a cord of wood to the 
acre yearly for an indefinite period. 

Besides the production of cord wood, proper handling 
will produce a limited amount of sawlogs. The profit 
from these is usually very high, because only selected logs 
are taken and the quality of the timber is very high. 
Usually the market is close at hand and the cost of logging 
consequently very low. Even now the woodlots of the 



The Significance of the Forest 13 

country produce some 80,000,000 ft. B.M.^ of sawlogs. 
This could easily be doubled by proper management ; 
and it is safe to say that the present area of the woodlots 
would be much more than doubled if the farm lands were 
all put to the use for which they are best adapted. 

Posts, most of which are now shipped from long dis- 
tances at great expense, can be grown at home, and the 
cost of fencing be very much reduced. Telephone poles 
for local lines can be grown ; railroad ties are eagerly 
bought by the railroads. Nor must it be forgotten that 
all of these products yield more or less by-products in the 
form of cord wood. All of them, also, can be cut in the 
winter when men are otherwise idle and expensive horses 
are standing in the stable. 

In many cases, this woodlot can be so located as to fur- 
nish shelter from damaging winds to the farm crops or 
homestead. The difference between a cozy home nestling 
in the shelter of a neighboring woodlot, and a house 
exposed to the winds of winter and the hot dry winds of 
summer, may not be calculated exactly in dollars and 
cents, but it certainly means much to those living therein. 

The esthetic feature of the woodlot is also incapable of 
exact valuation, but it certainly adds much to the attrac- 
tiveness of the country. It does away with the appear- 
ance of shiftlessness always accompanying waste land. 
Further, it is yielding a revenue from land that otherwise 
would be a drag on the remainder of the farm ; and it is 
preparing the way for still greater profits later on — for a 
generation or two of forest growth will rehabilitate farm 

*B.M. is the customary abbreviation for board measure, i.e. for square 
feet of surface of boards 1 in. thick. 



14 The Farm Woodlot 

land that has been run down beyond the possibility of 
successful cropping. The fertility of the land is renewed 
and increased by forest growth. 

Lastly, but not of the least importance commercially, 
all these features greatly increase the sale value of the land. 
There is no doubt that a well-regulated woodlot with its 
appearance and its possibilities for production will in- 
crease the attractiveness of a farm sufficiently to raise its 
sale value several hundred dollars. 

A few examples of the results of forest management in 
Europe and parts of America will assist in showing the 
possibilities of the woodlot as a money-producer. Large 
areas of the German forests, artificially planted and care- 
fully tended, yield a net annual revenue of $4 to $8 per 
acre. Only a few of them yield less than S2.50 per acre. 
One forest in Switzerland yields as high as $14 per acre. 
Such large profits as these, in many cases higher than 
the revenues from our good farm lands, are not yet 
possible in this country owing to the low cost of lumber, 
but already plantations of white pine in New England 
have yielded six per cent on the investment annually, 
and that under rather careless management. It will be 
some time, possibly, before such profits can be realized on 
our large forest areas, but, owing to the ready market and 
the possibility of more complete utilization, the woodlot 
can already be made to participate in them. 

The initial expense of establishing a woodlot is small, 
the expense and care of conducting it are almost negligible, 
and the returns, considering the quality of the land on 
which it grows, highly satisfactory. There are very 
few farms that can afford to be without a woodlot. 



CHAPTER II 

THE PLACE OF THE FOREST IN FARM MAN- 
AGEMENT 

The time has come when the woodlot should be given 
its proper place in every scheme of farm management. 
There was a time when every man in the prairie country 
considered it good farming to put all of the land he could 
plow into wheat ; that time has passed. Even in the old 
East, the early farmer too often thought of his farm in 
terms of tillage and mowings and pasturage rather than 
including forests. All land is not suited to the produc- 
tion of wheat, nor can the best wheat land maintain its 
fertility if planted to wheat continuously for a long series 
of years. 

The key to successful farming to-day is the careful 
classification of land (see page 19) and the no less careful 
selection of the crops best suited to each class. The 
enormous yields secured in some parts of the older coun- 
tries are partly due to very intensive methods, but are 
more largely dependent on the detailed study of the same 
piece of land through several generations so that every 
peculiarity of the soil is known, the crop exactly suited to 
it selected. These methods will bring the highest yields, 
but of course the cost of production and the market must 
be carefully considered in order to obtain the highest net 
returns. The high cost of labor may in one case prohibit 

15 



16 The Farm Woodlot 

the crop which will bring the highest yield ; the lack of a 
market may prevent it in another. 

This proper choice of crops seems simple enough, but 
the idea makes its way very slowly against the customary 
practice. Because there was no market for a crop ten 
years ago, it is still avoided to-day, although conditions 
may have changed so completely that it would now be 
the best-paying crop on the farm. 

It is this misplaced conservatism that has for so many 
years kept the woodlot from its proper place in the scheme 
of farm management. When there were large areas of 
natural timber, the woodlot products were so plentiful 
that they had no value, and no one could even imagine 
the time when they would be scarce. The settlers who 
occupied the treeless prairie all came from the regions of 
plentiful timber. They still remembered the back- 
breaking labor of clearing up the forest, and hesitated to 
sacrifice any of that beautiful open land to the growth of 
such a worthless crop — for so it was in their country — 
as forest trees, even though they were paying excessively 
high prices for lumber, posts and all the fuel they used. 
To them every square foot planted to trees was a sacrifice 
of good, productive land, — land which might be produc- 
ing what they considered a valuable crop, — to produce 
something which had no intrinsic value. 

These conditions have changed now in the timbered 
area, and they never really existed in the prairies. The 
woodlots in the hills of the forested East to-day yield as 
high net revenue as some of the more fertile cultivated 
lands of the valleys, in spite of the utter lack of care and 
the violent abuses they have suffered. And even the fertile 



The Forest in Farm Management 17 

prairie lands of the West, owing to the exigencies of the 
market, will sometimes yield a higher revenue when planted 
to trees and properly cared for than any other crop will 
average for the same period, while at the same time the 
woodlot will be of inestimable value to the rest of the farm 
in other ways. 

CAPABILITIES OF THE WOODLOT 

A few illustrations will demonstrate this very clearly. 
In New England, plantations of white pine made forty 
years ago on poor gravelly land, depleted by a long series 
of cropping, have yielded as high as forty thousand feet of 
box boards to the acre, worth ten dollars a thousand on 
the stump. This was sufficient to pay 6 per cent interest 
per annum on the value of the land and the cost of estab- 
lishing the plantation. That was from a quality of land 
which would not at that time have produced any other 
crop which would have paid nearly as high returns. Yet 
the owner looked upon this as waste land and so little appre- 
ciated the value of the crop that he sold it for half its value 
without taking the trouble to investigate its true worth. 

There are throughout the New England states many 
neglected, run-down farms that have grown up to volun- 
teer crops of white pine. These crops have established 
themselves without expense to the owner and have never 
had care of any kind. In spite of this neglect, they have 
produced crops more valuable than farm crops and have 
at the same time rejuvenated the soil. 

Warren, in Bulletin 295 of the Cornell Experiment 
Station, records an abandoned field in New York that had 
grown up to such a volunteer crop of trees. This field 
c 



18 The Farm Woodlot 

of thirty-five acres not only received absolutely no atten- 
tion, but was even mistreated. At the end of twenty-two 
years the timber crop was sold for $106 per acre, a 
return of $4.82 per acre per annum from land which 
would not sell for $15 per acre. This is not an isolated 
case ; there are acres of others which have done as well. 

In the prairie sections of the Middle West, where there 
is no natural timber, there have been very few plantations 
made for commercial purposes. There are thousands of 
plantations, but they are so small and so highly valued for 
their protection and aesthetic effect that they are seldom 
cut. A conservative estimate will show, however, that 
they have a high intrinsic value for timber, posts and cord 
wood, entirely apart from the valuable protection they 
afford to homes, stock and crops. 

Consider, for example, the following data collected 
from a windbreak plantation near Crookston, Minnesota : 
The plantation is two rods wide and contains five rows of 
Cottonwood trees planted four feet apart in the row. 
This means 1650 trees per acre. These trees will all 
make one post, and half of them two. This means 2475 
posts which have a value of .08 apiece for treating pur- 
poses, — a yield of $198 per acre in twelve years, or $16.50 
per annum, over the cost of production. This is almost as 
much as the gross returns from a wheat crop. Should there 
not be a market for so many posts, the forty cords of 
wood will find a ready sale at $5 per cord, and the profits 
will be practically the same. The wheat crop so highly 
valued and universally planted in this section will not 
yield a third of this, and there is no grain crop that will 
average such a high revenue for such a long period of 



The Forest in Farm Management 19 

years. Yet there are millions of acres of wheat planted 
every year, and not an acre of forest except for the pro- 
tection of less valuable crops. 

These examples (and they are typical of thousands of 
other cases) show clearly enough that the farm woodlot 
deserves a definite and respected place in every scheme of 
farm management. 

LOCATING THE WOODLOT 

It is clear, then, that there should be a woodlot on 
every farm. The next thing is to choose the proper loca- 
tion for it. For convenience we shall discuss this under 
two heads: the hilly country of the East, and the level 
prairies of the West. 

In comparison with the prairies, nearly all of the 
eastern farm lands may be considered hilly. On almost 
every farm there is a tract of land ill suited to cultivation, 
either on account of the steepness of the slope or the poor 
quality of the soil. In some cases it is so poor that it is 
not cultivated at all ; in others it can be forced to yield a 
slender crop which is often produced at a loss. In either 
case it is the place to choose for the woodlot. The steep- 
ness of the slope does not in any way interfere with the 
growth of the trees, which require little, if any, cultivation 
in that country, and the roots of the trees hold the soil in 
place, prevent the hillside from eroding and burying the 
richer soils of the valleys. Nor is the poor quality of the 
soil much hindrance, for trees may do well on soil which is 
too poor to support any other crop. Every one of these so 
called "waste places" on the farm is capable of producing 
a very respectable revenue from the growth of forest trees. 



20 The Farm Woodlot 

Even in the prairie districts (and with the prairies are 
here grouped all the flat lands of fairly uniform quality), 
there are patches of land, some large and some small, 
which are poorly suited to cultivation and naturally sug- 
gest themselves as woodlot locations. 

In the comparatively few cases in which the land is of 
uniformly good quality throughout, the necessity for wind- 
breaks may aid in the location of the woodlots. In all 
the prairie sections this will be true, no matter what the 
character of the land. The cold winds of winter and the 
hot, drying winds of summer are now recognized as great 
obstacles to successful farming in these exposed regions. 
Homes are made uncomfortable, stock suffers and exces- 
sive supplies of forage are made necessary by the bitterly 
cold winds of winter. Soil moisture is evaporated, and, 
in many cases, the immature crops are burned up in the 
fields by the hot, dry winds of midsummer. Dry-farm- 
ing methods and the selection of drought-resistant species 
are far from successful. Windbreaks are an absolute 
necessity. 

These harmful winds blow consistently in a definite 
direction. Windbreaks should be placed at right angles to 
them and at sufficiently close intervals to protect the inter- 
vening spaces. These spaces should not much exceed a 
quarter of a mile in width, as a windbreak cannot be 
expected to extend its influence over a distance much 
greater than ten times its height. A number of such 
breaks would, however, prevent the formation of the 
diurnal ^ winds which do so much of the damage. The 

' Winds which rise with the sun each day and go down with it ; local 
winds made possible by large unbroken areas of overheated surface. 



The Forest in Farm Management 21 

location of these windbreaks is dictated by the necessity 
for protection, and there is no reason why these same 
breaks should not serve the double purpose of protection 
and wood production. An increased width of wind- 
breaks will greatly increase the efl&ciency of the break and 
make it an adequate source of wood supply without with- 
drawing nearly so large an area from cultivation as would 
be necessary if the windbreaks and woodlots were separate. 
The land thus devoted to tree growth should never be 
less than 5 per cent of the farm, and in many cases 20 
per cent of it can be so used to advantage. In the case of 
patchy land, the size of the woodlot should be governed by 
the area of the non-tillable land, provided always that it 
did not go below the minimum, as stated above. If the 
proper soil classification has been made, it cannot exceed 
the maximum, — for there is no money in farming poor 
soil. The land for this purpose should not be grudgingly 
set apart or considered a loss to the farm. It forms as 
distinctly legitimate a part of the scheme of farm manage- 
ment as wheat, oats, corn or any of the other cultivated 
crops, and in wood products alone, will pay a higher rent 
on the quality of land it occupies than any of them, 
entirely apart from, and in addition to, its value as a 
windbreak, a harbor and breeding place for insect-eating 
birds, and a most pleasing feature in the landscape. 

SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS DISCUSSIONS 

Every farm should have a woodlot, — some large, some 
small, according to the quality of the soil, but there is no 
land so valuable that it will not pay to put a small part 
of it in a woodlot. 



22 The Farm Woodlot 

The woodlot should not be used as a pasture. No 
farmer would pasture his wheat crop ; why then should he 
pasture a crop that is even more valuable ? If shade is 
needed in the pasture, let him plant some good shade trees 
there and fence them off until they are large enough to 
take care of themselves. If the trees are taken care of, 
they will be worth a great deal ; if they are injured by 
grazing animals, they will be worth much less. The 
value of such pasturage is comparatively nothing. 

The woodlot should be located on the poorest land on the 
farm. The quality of the soil is very important in the 
production of grain crops; for the growth of trees it is 
unimportant. In this respect many of the woodlots in 
the East are now poorly located. In the original clearing 
of the farms very little attention was paid to the quality 
of the soil, and the woodlot was often left on the most 
fertile part of the farm. On the prairies the plantings 
should be so located as to furnish the best protection to 
the cultivated crops, the stockyards and the homestead. 

Heretofore, the idea of protection has been too much 
restricted to the homestead. This is important in increas- 
ing the comfort of the home, but the protection of the 
crops is far more important from the financial viewpoint. 
The increase in yield within the influence of the wind- 
break will often exceed 50 per cent. It is often objected 
that such a break destroys the fertility of the adjoining 
field for a rod on either side of it. This objection is 
easily overruled when we stop to consider that an in- 
creased yield of 10 per cent in the area influenced by a 
thirty-five-foot break will compensate for a total loss on a 
two-rod strip next to the break. Moreover, there is 



The Forest in Farm Management 23 

always more or less of a loss along any boundary, whether 
it be a fence or a row of trees, so the windbreak should 
not be charged with too much waste. In any case the 
wood produced in the break will more than pay for all the 
land it occupies or wastes entirely aside from the protection 
it affords. 

Lastly, the profits from groves already harvested show 
that there is not a section of the northeastern United 
States or Canada where a farm woodlot of the proper size 
will not produce a crop more valuable, that is, yielding a 
higher net revenue per annum, than any grain crop. 
Therefore the woodlot should always be given a prominent 
and definite place in any plan of farm management, not for 
any sentimental or aesthetic reason, but because it is a 
money-maker, the best one on the farm. 

THE CLEARING OF A FARM 

There is one type of farm on which forestry must 
necessarily play a much larger part than it does on the 
older and more settled parts of the country or on the 
windy prairies, yet it has so far received absolutely no 
attention. This type comprises those farms that are now 
being cleared in the timbered or cut-over regions. 

It is very natural that little attention should have been 
given these farms in a forestry way. These districts have 
always had a superabundance of timber. Logging has 
been the principal business. Most of the settlers have 
taken the claims for the sake of the timber on them, or 
because they were cheap stump land. Many of them have 
worked in the logging camps and have the logger's con- 
tempt for anything except big, clear saw timber. They 



24 The Farm Woodlot 

care nothing for young growth and have no conception of 
the land ever being able to produce valuable timber again. 
To them the forest is a mine, not a growing crop. 

None of these men has ever cleared any land, and he 
has no idea of what it means to clean up a hundred and 
sixty acres of stump land so that it can be cultivated. 

The wrong way 

Without any definite plans, or any estimate of costs, 
persons pick out the place that seems the easiest to clear 
and build a small shack in the middle of it, absolutely 
regardless of the character of the soil. Most of them know 
very little of farming. They have never actually figured 
on the results they expect to attain, and have an indefinite 
idea that they are going to clear the whole farm in two 
years. They have a still hazier, but more strongly rooted, 
idea that the more often a piece of land is burned over, the 
easier it is to clear. 

Under these conditions it is natural that they should 
not only take no precautions against fire, but should even 
use every effort to have the land burned over as often as 
possible. In a very few years every growing thing on the 
farm is destroyed except the almost indestructible and 
rapidly growing brush. The land is reduced to a tangle of 
worthless "bush," and all tree seed and tree seedlings 
have been destroyed. The density of the brush soon 
makes the volunteer growth of trees impossible and even 
successful planting very difficult and expensive. 

Less than an acre is the average area cleared the first 
year, and the man who has ten acres of cultivated land at 
the end of five years is the energetic exception. He has 



The Forest in Farm Management 25 

had but little time to work on his own place. He had no 
capital to start with, and must live. Clearing land is hard, 
discouraging and lonesome work. He finds more imme- 
diate returns and more congenial work in the logging 
camps in the winter, on the drive in the spring and in the 
harvest fields of the established farms in the fall. This 
enforced absence from home makes it impossible for him 
to keep stock of any kind or have a garden, the only- 
two lines of work open to him with the land at his dis- 
posal. 

Should he stick to the place long enough to clear up ten 
acres, he almost invariably plants it up to the grain crop 
most popular in that section. Distance from market, 
forced neglect and lack of facilities generally destroy the 
possibility of profit ; he cannot eat the crop himself and 
is no nearer self-support and prosperity than he was be- 
fore. 

In nine cases out of every ten the settler becomes dis- 
gusted or completely discouraged, lets the so-called 
"farm" go for taxes and moves on, probably to repeat the 
performance at some other place. 

Such methods, or lack of method, have broken the 
hearts and discouraged the lives of thousands of men. It 
has delayed the development of our timbered cut-over 
lands a half a century and has left our country burdened 
with thousands of abandoned claims, worse than worth- 
less waste lands which might just as well be producing 
millions of revenue and supporting countless, prosperous 
homes if the tree value of the land had only been con- 
sidered in the first place. 



26 The Farm Woodlot 

The right way 

The first necessity for a man who is attempting to clear 
a cut-over or timbered claim, unless he has unlimited 
capital and does not have to depend upon the farm for his 
livelihood, is the realization that land devoted to the 
growth of timber is capable of producing a good revenue 
if protected from fire. Without that realization his success 
must necessarily be very limited and very uncertain. 

Next, he must bear in mind that not all land is worth 
clearing. Many a man has devoted his whole life and 
sacrificed his family in the effort to clear a farm which 
proved to be useless when it was cleared. Select good 
land ; a poor farm is worse than none. That same land 
will produce good profits in timber ; as a farm it will be 
only an expense to the owner. 

A piece of good land chosen, the next thing needed 
is a definite and comprehensive plan of operation. Five 
acres is more than the average man can clear alone in a 
year. Eighty acres is more than he ought to attempt in a 
lifetime. If he is going to accomplish anything, he must 
be on the place all the time ; if he is going to be there all 
the time, the place must support him from the very start. 
This means that the first crops must be such as he can eat. 
Fortunately these can be raised on a small patch of the 
right kind of land. 

The first step, then, is clear. The first clearing should 
be made in the place best suited to a garden. From this 
he can easily raise enough to support him and sell enough 
more to buy the mere necessities of life. 

The brush land furnishes good pasture for cattle and 



The Forest in Farm Management 27 

sheep, especially when it is seeded between the stumps, 
and advantage should be taken of it. Eighty acres will 
suffice for cultivated land and pasture for the first genera- 
tion at least. This area should be selected at the start 
and fenced off. There should be a definite plan of develop- 
ment for this eighty acres covering the next forty years, 
but the details of it lie beyond the province of this book. 

Our business lies with the other eighty acres. It has 
been explained above that this eighty acres will not be 
needed in the plan of farm development for at least forty 
years. If this land is burned over and pastured, as is the 
Common practice, it will steadily deteriorate and will 
produce absolutely nothing. In the meanwhile the taxes 
are piling up and the eighty acres of unused land — pro- 
ducing no revenue — is hanging as a lifeless burden on the 
rest of the farm. The tract cannot pay its way, and the 
rest of the farm must not only pay the taxes, but must 
eventually pay for the clearing of the land as well. 

This is almost the universal custom, but it is quite as 
foolish as it is universal. Experience has proven con- 
clusively that any of this timber land and cut-over land 
— if the soil is good — will grow up to a volunteer crop of 
timber, provided it is protected from fire and grazing, 
and that without any work or expenditure on the part of 
the owner. Just how valuable the crop of timber is will 
depend on the character of the soil and the consequent 
character of the forest. It will vary from forty cords of 
firewood in some types to forty thousand feet of valuable 
box board lumber in others. In either case it will be suffi- 
cient to pay the taxes for the forty years, pay the expenses 
of clearing the land, if this seems desirable, and often in 



28 The Farm Woodlot 

addition will pay a higher net revenue per acre than the 
rest of the farm has averaged in these early stages of de- 
velopment. 

A very conservative estimate of the value of this eighty 
acres of volunteer timber crop at the - end of the forty 
years would be $6400, and in some sections of the country it 
would be three times as much. This is an unearned incre- 
ment which is not to be despised, and yet it is being 
absolutely ignored and thrown away on tens of thousands 
of farms in the United States and Canada to-day. 

Nor should all of the timber ever be cut from the farm, 
even where the height of its development has been at- 
tained. In these regions of plentiful timber it is but 
natural that the value of the woodlot should be under- 
estimated or altogether ignored. But there could not be 
a greater mistake. It is an economic impossibility to 
cultivate all the land in any section. Part of it must be 
in timber. Many illustrations of the truth of this can be 
seen in the older settled districts. Take, for example, the 
most highly developed portions of the country, places 
where farm land has reached a ridiculously high figure and 
waste space is done away with. These sections in the 
timber belt show from 10 to 25 per cent still in forest ; in 
the prairies the established woodlot is the farmer's most 
cherished possession, and the acreage devoted to this pur- 
pose is steadily increasing. It can never be otherwise. 

Why, then, should the pioneer struggle to clear all of 
the timber from his farm when he or his descendants will 
most certainly be obliged to replace some of it ? The correct 
handling of the woodlands of an uncleared claim is the most 
important factor in the management and development of 
such farms and should receive the attention it deserves. 



CHAPTER III 
THE GROWTH OF THE TREE 

No book on forestry, no matter how "popular" it may- 
be, would be complete without a brief sketch describing 
the parts of a tree and how it grows, — for on that knowl- 
edge is based the management of the woodlot in all its 
phases. 

A tree is a plant of upright growth which usually 
attains a height of at least fifteen feet. It consists of an 
upright branching stem, roots, leaves, buds, flowers and 
fruit. The stem is usually unbranched below, when the 
plant is grown, forming a trunk or bole. 

The leaves, the most evident part of the tree in summer, 
are the factories where the food for the nourishment of the 
whole tree is prepared. In this process they take in 
carbonic acid, gas from the air, and give off oxygen as a 
waste product. They may be almost any shape, from the 
feather-like compound leaves of the honey locust to the 
needle-like leaf of the pine or the mere scale of the arbor- 
vitse, and the size varies greatly. No matter what 
their shape or size, they perform the same functions of 
manufacturing the raw materials taken from the air 
and soil into carbohydrates for plant-food. 

If the leaves remain on the tree over winter, this tree 
is called an evergreen; if the leaves all fall off in the 

29 



30 The Farm Woodlot 

autumn, it is called deciduous. Even the evergreens do 
not keep the same leaves all the time ; they are only called 
evergreens because they never lose all their leaves at the 
same time. The white pine needles remain on the trees 
from two to four years, the red cedar seven or eight and the 
other evergreens range between these two. In falling, 
they give back to the soil chemicals that the tree has 
drawn from it, and more besides. It is this which causes 
the continued growth of forest on a piece of land to increase 
the fertility of the soil. 

The roots supply most of the raw material with which 
the leaves work. They are underground branches spe- 
cially adapted to absorb moisture from the soil. 

Some trees, such as the oaks, hickories, walnuts and 
some of the pines, have practically only one root, a large 
one called a tap-root, running straight down, into the 
ground. This is an inherited quality and cannot be modi- 
fied very much by a change in the environment. 

Others, such as the spruce, tamarack and balsam, have a 
lateral system of roots which lie on or very near the sur- 
face of the ground, while still others, like our maples, ashes 
and elms, have a combination of the two, or a mixed system. 
These are a little better able to change and adapt them- 
selves to new conditions. 

These roots, by reason of very fine rootlets, or root hairs, 
suck up water from the soil and in solution with it certain 
small quantities of lime, magnesia and potash, — the raw 
materials for plant-food. This water passes through the 
roots, up the stem of the tree and out the branches to 
the leaves. Here the excess water evaporates through the 
pores, and the leaves work up the mineral salts and the 



The Growth of the Tree 31 

elements obtained from the air into sugar and starch from 
which the wood tissues are made. This passage of the 
water up the stem in the early spring is known as the 
"rising of the sap." Since this is the only way the tree 
has of securing food, it is absolutely essential that these 
necessary materials be in soluble form. Should they be 
present ever so abundantly in insoluble combinations, or 
poisoned by salts or acids, the tree would nevertheless 
starve. This often happens with all kinds of plants, and 
is well known by most farmers. 

The roots also fulfill the further purpose of holding 
the tree upright. Naturally the trees with the long tap- 
root running deep into the ground are the firmest, because 
they have the best grip on the soil. Such trees are prac- 
tically never uprooted, — they break off first. Those 
having the mixed root systems are also fairly firm and not 
easily blown over unless they have been grown in a very 
protected location and then suddenly deprived of their 
protection, — for, as explained above, they easily adapt 
themselves to conditions and would not take a deep hold 
on the ground unless forced to it by constant strain. The 
shallow-rooted species have a still weaker hold, and are 
easily upset even when most carefully trained to with- 
stand the wind. The roots are much quicker to respond 
to the necessity of giving stronger mechanical support 
than to the exigencies of a new moisture or soil condition. 

The stem, trunk or hole. — The trunk of the tree an- 
swers the double purpose of transporting the water supplied 
by the roots, and supporting the crown; its branches 
spread the leaves to the light. 

If a cross-section of the stem is studied, its structure 



32 The Farm Woodlot 

may be quite plainly seen. In the center is a small spot of 
pith varying from a mere pin point in the pine to a half 
inch in diameter in some of the sumacs and elders. This 
was the original live tissue from which the rest has grown. 
Surrounding it are a number of concentric rings, very 
distinct in the oak, almost invisible in the black gum. 
Each ring represents the growth of a year. The inner 
portion of the ring is usually of a lighter color and softer 
texture. This is the spring wood. It is formed in the 
spring when the tree is living on the food stored over from* 
the preceding season, and the walls of the cells, of which all 
wood is composed, are very thin. The wood of deciduous 
trees, the hardwoods, is usually full of little holes, the 
cross-sections of hollow cells ; in the conifers, or softwoods, 
the holes are so small that they cannot be seen with the 
naked eye. The outer portion of the ring is of darker 
color and harder tissue. This is the growth of the summer 
or autumn, when the leaves are furnishing an abundance 
of food, and the cell walls are very thick. The contrast 
is very much stronger in some woods than in others. 
In the tropical forests, the trees either do not show these 
rings at all, or, when present, they do not represent years 
of growth. There the growth is continuous throughout 
the year, except when interrupted by drought ; there is no 
cold weather to bring about a rest period. Consequently 
rings, when present, represent periods of drought instead 
of years, and the age of the trees cannot be ascertained 
definitely in this way. If the trunk examined is an oak, 
there will be evident streaks of white wood radiating from 
the central pith, like the spokes of a wheel, only in broken 
lines. These are called the pith rays or medullary rays. 



The Growth of the Tree 33 

They are lines of living tissue running at right angles to 
the other fibers and furnish a storehouse for the surplus 
food saved over from one season to another. It is the 
splitting of these rays that makes the silver grain in quarter- 
sawed oak ; they are also important as the starting point 
for checks in seasoned lumber. They are present in all 
woods but are so small in many species that they cannot 
be perceived without the use of a microscope. A further 
variation may be noted in the appearance of the cross- 
section. The outer portion, varying with the species, 
from three to fifty rings in width, is of a lighter color than 
the inner portion. This is called the sap wood. It is 
through this porton of the stem that most of the water, or 
sap, passes. Girdle this and the food supply of the tree 
is cut off. 

When the tree is young, all the wood is sapwood. At 
varying ages in the different species, by some process as 
yet not thoroughly understood, this sapwood imdergoes a 
change. It ceases to conduct the sap, and is strengthened 
by certain injections that harden and mature it and 
darken the color. The change is both chemical and physi- 
cal. It is then known as heartwood, and practically 
ceases to play any active part in the life of the tree, save 
as a mechanical support for the crown. The change 
from sapwood to heartwood does not take place at any 
particular age. The sapwood may extend through twenty 
rings on one side of the tree and only half a dozen on the 
other ; the line separating the two is very irregular. 

Surrounding the stem is a layer of bark. It varies in 
thickness from a sixteenth of an inch in the paper birch to 
six inches in the big trees of California, but is always pres- 



34 The Farm Woodlot 

ent. Its purpose is to protect the growing tissue. There 
is always a soft, pulpy inner bark and a woody or corky 
outer bark. The various forms that it may take are as 
numerous as the species of trees, and in many cases as 
distinctive. A close examination shows that the bark 
is divided into aimual rings, and were it not for the fact 
that the hard outer bark cracks and scales off from time to 
time, the age could be told from the bark as well as from 
the wood. This bark' covers the entire tree, stem, roots 
and branches. 

As yet we have not discovered the source of growth, and 
unless we know what to look for, may not find it at all. It 
is most easily seen in the spring. Between the bark and 
the wood is a very thin layer of mucilaginous living tissue. 
During the growing season this tissue grows in two direc- 
tions, outward to form the bark and inward to form wood. 
It is by means of this tissue that all diameter growth 
takes place. This is called the cambium and like the bark 
envelops the whole tree. Where this layer is taken off, 
diameter growth ceases. 

The buds are arranged on the branches in regular order 
at the base of the leaf stems. They are formed in the 
autumn, when the tree is maturing its season's growth, for 
the winter protection of the tender growing points. The 
buds at the ends of the branches are called "ter- 
minal" buds, those along the branches, "lateral" buds. 
These buds are of two kinds : flower buds, which will 
produce the flowers in the spring; and leaf buds. The 
flower buds are often to be distinguished by their larger 
size. They are more easily damaged by frost than the 
leaf buds. 



The Growth of the Tree 35 

The flower is that part of the plant which produces the 
fruit. Many persons do not know that trees produce 
flowers and fruits. They confine the term flower to the 
ornamental blossoms of certain garden plants, and the 
term fruit to such things as apples and oranges. Never- 
theless, every plant of the higher orders puts forth flowers. 
In the trees, most of the flowers are very inconspicuous. 
There are three different arrangements for the tree flowers. 
In some species, such as the cherry and the mountain ash, 
the flowers are perfect, that is both sexes are represented 
in the same flower. The second class, the elm, oaks 
and pines among them, have the different sexes in different 
flowers on the same tree. The third class have the differ- 
ent sexes on different trees, the cottonwoods and willows 
being of this class. This is the reason why some cotton- 
woods spread the objectionable cotton over everything 
and others do not ; why some holly has red berries, 
others none. 

Fruit. — Every tree which produces pistillate flowers 
bears fruit. We use the term carelessly and frequently 
confuse the fruit and the seed. The fruit is the seed, — 
one or more in number, — together with the seed covering, 
whether it be a hairy catkin, a fleshy drupe or a dry 
samara. The flower is the generative organ that produces 
the fruit, and this fruit contains the seed that produces 
the small tree. 

The fruit is important in this discussion only because 
it produces the seed. These seeds are of almost innumer- 
able shapes and sizes ; the important ones will be described 
later on. The means by which the seeds are distributed 
is the only point that must be taken up here. Among the 



36 The Farm Woodlot 

species with which we are interested at present, there 
are only two means of distribution : the wind and the birds. 
The fleshy fruits, such as cherries, hack berries, red cedar 
berries, and the like, are eaten by the birds and dropped, 
often far from the tree on which they grew. The heavy 
nuts can only roll or be carried short distances by squirrels. 
All the others are supplied with some means to facilitate 
wind transportation, as tufts of hair, wings, leaf attach- 
ments, and the like. 

LIFE HISTORY OF A TREE 

With the above description of the tree and its parts in 
mind, it will be easy to follow out a brief sketch of its 
life history. When the seed is first placed in the ground, 
it begins to absorb moisture. This softens the outer 
coating of the seed and causes the fleshy portion within 
to swell. Moisture and warmth start the growth in the 
embryo of the seed, — the real germ of life. The covering 
splits, the primary leaves or cotyledons appear above the 
ground and the root grows downward. The plant at 
this stage feeds on the fleshy part of the seed, the endo- 
sperm. At this stage it is almost impossible for any one 
but an expert to distinguish the different species, since 
the cotyledons do not, in many species, in the least 
resemble the mature leaves. The arborvitse and the pine, 
for example, are hardly distinguishable the first season. 

The plant is established on an independent growing 
basis if the root strikes readily into mineral soil, but if, 
through any difficulty the endosperm is exhausted before 
the root takes hold, the seedling shrivels and dies. The 
different species vary greatly in their habits of growth in 



The Growth of the Tree 37 

the early seedling stage. Some, like the nut trees, devote 
most of their energies to establish their root systems. The 
tap-root of a one-year-old hickory is often as long as, or 
longer than, the stem. Others, like the cottonwoods and 
willows, make a rapid height growth with a comparatively 
small root system. The hardwoods, as a rule, make much 
more rapid growth for the first few years than the soft- 
woods. Most of them put forth mature leaves and grow 
a foot or more in height the first year. Most of the soft- 
woods or conifers retain their cotyledons through the 
first season and do not put forth any real leaves. They 
rarely attain a height of over three inches the first year, 
and many of them not more than two. They are so small 
that they are usually overlooked in the woods unless one 
is familiar with their appearance. All this growth of the 
first season comes from the central pith. The cambium 
is formed as the diameter growth continues. As autumn 
approaches, growth ceases, the wood is matured and the 
buds are formed to protect the growing points, — arranged 
in regular order along the stem of the hardwoods, in a 
whorl at the top of the coniferous stem. The leaves of the 
hardwoods fall and the little trees are ready for the winter. 
In the winter season, the hardwoods, as far as we 
know, take an absolute rest, although there may be more 
or less movement of fluids. Everything is prepared for 
the cold weather and the leaves are gone. The ever- 
greens are as well prepared as the hardwoods, save that 
they do not drop their leaves. This is sometimes detri- 
mental and even fatal in some open winters on the open 
prairies. The sweep of a south wind forces evaporation 
from the leaves when the ground is still frozen hard. In 



38 The Farm Woodlot 

this way, the tree is robbed of its normal amount of mois- 
ture, and the leaves and twigs become shriveled, some- 
times so severely that they cannot recover. The warmth 
of spring starts growth in the plant once more. The sap 
rises in the trees, the buds open, the leaves and flowers 
come out, and the live tissue, that completely covers the 
tree, stem and branches in an unbroken layer, begins 
growth. During this period, the tree feeds on the surplus 
food stored away the year before. The growth from the 
growing points in the buds produces length of branch or 
height of stem. The cambium produces diameter growth. 
Neither stem nor branch ever grows in length except at 
the end. There is a common belief that the fence wire 
nailed on the trunk of a tree will rise as the tree grows. 
This is not true. The trunk grows only in diameter. 
This spring growth is producing the thin-walled layer 
of cells found in the inner part of the ring in the cross- 
section. When the leaves come out and the work of 
manufacturing food begins, the thick-walled cells of the 
outer part are formed. Through the summer, more food 
is produced than can be used for growth, and this surplus 
is stored away in the pith rays for the growth of the follow- 
ing spring. This completes the yearly round of life in 
the tree. The following years of growth are the same as 
this second one. 

At ages varjdng with the species, flower buds are formed 
and fruit produced. This occurs in some species, like 
the jack pine, at the age of seven or eight years. Such 
early fruiting, however, is premature and the seed, if 
any is produced, rarely possesses any vitality. This is 
more or less true of the first seed produced by any plant. 



The Growth of the Tree 39 

By repeating this annual program, the tree continues 
to grow for an indefinite period. Some species are natu- 
rally shorter-lived than others. The gray birch, for example, 
rarely lives more than thirty or forty years, while the big 
trees of the Pacific Coast are some of them three or four 
thousand years old. There does not appear to be any 
definite limit to the age of trees, but when growth becomes 
slow and their vitality low they become subject to the 
attacks of insects and fungi that cause death and destroy 
the wood after they die. 

The thrifty tree may be picked out by its general ap- 
pearance and the shape of its crown. So long as growth 
is rapid and healthy, the crown retains a conical shape. 
This is true of both conifers and hardwoods. When the 
tree has attained its height and the growth is less strong, 
the crown broadens and flattens out. This flat-topped 
appearance shows that the tree has practically finished 
its height growth and is growing only in diameter and 
this only to a slight extent. Extremely old trees some- 
times lack enough food for growth throughout the cam- 
bium and lay on increment only in the upper portions. 
This condition is usually followed very shortly by death, 
— a death, however, that requires many years for its 
fulfillment. 



CHAPTER IV 
DENDROLOGY 

The study of the kinds of trees, and of their botanical 
characteristics, is dendrology. The study of the cultiva- 
tion or growing of trees in forest plantations is sylviculture. 

A completer distinction between the two terms may be 
made, in order that the reader may never be confused. 
Sylviculture means forest-culture. It is derived from 
sylva, meaning forest, plus the word culture. It deals with 
forest crops as agriculture deals with farm crops. As 
used in forestry, sylviculture means the producing of 
forest trees for forestry purposes. It includes the growing 
of forest trees by sowing and planting, or what is known 
as ''artificial regeneration," and the growing of forest 
trees by caring for established forests so that the best and 
most useful trees are produced and new trees spring up 
naturally, or what is kno\vn as "natural regeneration." 
In either case, nature is aided to produce the best results 
in the shortest possible time. In its broadest sense, 
sylviculture includes everything that is connected with 
the life history of a forest. Nature alone is oftentimes 
slow and uncertain, and since the forester must attend to 
the economic side, it becomes necessary to render aid, 
such as supplying seed and plants and by furnishing the 
most desirable trees, which nature does not always do, 
and by aiding in the production of the best trees in a 
minimum amount of time. 

40 



Dendrology 41 

Sylviculture is primarily an art and as such it is based on 
a science. This science is Sylvics. Sylvics is the knowledge 
of the sylvicultural characteristics of forest trees. It treats 
of the life history of forest trees as individual species, or 
of a tree, while sylviculture deals with a collection of trees 
or with a forest. Before sylviculture can be practiced 
with any intelligence, a knowledge of the requirements of 
each species of tree, such as soil, moisture, climate, and 
the like, must be secured, and upon this sylviculture must 
be based. Sylvics begins with a knowledge of the number 
and kinds of our forest trees and their ready identification 
as to genus and species wherever found. This has to do 
with the simple botany of trees, their botanical character- 
istics, similarities and differences, and is called Dendrology, 
from dendron, meaning tree. Sylviculture should then, 
properly, begin with a study of the tree flora (as in Chapter 
IV) and be followed (as in Chapter V) with a discussion 
of sylviculture. 

The scope of dendrology is large and includes much 
that must be omitted here. The present treatment, 
however, will include a study of sufficient distinguishing 
characteristics of our common trees to enable any student 
to identify such as come to his attention. 

Our trees fall very naturally into two great groups : — 
Conifers, — meaning cone-bearing trees, such as the pines 
and spruces. (Nearly all our conifers have needle- 
shaped leaves, and with the exception of the larches 
all our northern conifers are evergreen.) 
Broadleaf trees,' — meaning trees with broad leaves, such 
as the elms and oaks. (All our northern broadleaf 
trees have deciduous foliage, i.e. the leaves fall from 



42 The Farm Woodlot 

the trees every autumn and new leaves appear 
in the following spring. The term hardwoods is 
often used instead of broadleaf trees.) 

THE CONIFERS 

The cone-bearing trees are of first importance in any 
scheme or practice of forestry. Pine, hemlock, fir, spruce, 
redwood and cypress timber provide the greater part 
of framework and finishing material in wood construction. 

Key to the Common Conifers 

I. Fruit a woody cone made up of overlapping cone-scales : 
seeds winged, two from each fertile scale. 
A. Leaves needle-shaped, single or in clusters. 

1. Arrangement of leaves from 2 to 5 in a cluster, 

usually over 2 inches long, evergreen (or 
persistent). The pines. 

2. Arrangement of leaves, in brush-like clusters, 

many not evergreen (deciduous). 

The larches. 

3. Arrangement of leaves single, short, scattered 

over the twigs. 
a. The leaves standing on short stalks and 
spreading out in all directions from the 
twig : twigs rough after leaves fall. 

The spruces. 

h. The leaves not stalked, and appear to be 

arranged in two ranks : resin blisters in 

bark of trunk : cones large, upright, 

scales falling with the seed. 

The firs. 

c. The leaves on short stalks, and appear to 
be in two ranks : no resin blisters in bark : 
cones small, pendant or pointing outward. 

The hemlock. 



Dendrology 



43 



B. Leaves scale-like, 
very small and 
closely pressed to 
the twig; Branches 
flattened: cones 
very small with 
scales opposite and 
in pairs. 

The white cedar. 

II. Fruit a small, fleshy, 
blue berry : leaves 
scale-like, also awl- 
shaped: branches 
not flattened. 

The red cedar. 

The pines. Figs. 3, 4 

The pines are very 
ancient trees, having 
evergreen needle- 
shaped leaves and 
bearing their seed in 
cones. They are 
amongst the foremost 
lumber trees in this 
country. They pro- 
duce hard and soft 
wood marked by light 
and dark bands of 
wood in which there 
is much resin. Great 
pine forests once oc- 




FiG. 3. — Mature white pine.' 
seed tree. 



•A good 



44 



The Farm Woodlot 




Fig. 4. — Mature Norway pine. — Pinus resinosa. 



curred in the 
Lake States and 
in the East and 
South, but the 
lumberman has 
destroyed prac- 
tically all of 
them. The great 
pine areas have 
been so com- 
pletely cut over 
and burned that 
most of our pine 
land does not 
now produce 
pine, but instead 
worthless brush 
and small un- 
important trees. 
The pines do 
not sprout as 
do hardwoods. 
Trees under 
twenty years of 
age rarely bear 
good seed and 
when all others 
are cut, there is 
no chance for 
new pine trees 
to grow. 



Dendrology 

The Kinds of Pines 



45 



Name 


Leaves 


Cones 


Bark 


Size 


Pinus 


5 in a cluster, 


4-8 in. long. 


Gray," deeply 


80-125 ft. 


Strobus 


blue-green and 


scales thin and 


furrowed 


high, 2-4 ft. 


White pine 


soft, 3-5 in. 
long 


without spines 


and thick, 
smooth on 
young trees 


in diameter 


Pinus 


2 in a cluster. 


2-3 in. long, egg- 


Light red 


50-90 ft. high 


resinosa 


5-6 in. long 


shaped, with 


brown or 


1-3 ft. di- 


Red pine 


and dark green 


small spines 


cinnamon 
red, in 
broad plates 


ameter 


Pinus 


3 in a cluster, 


1-3 in. long. 


Reddish brown 


30-70 ft. high, 


rigida 


yellow-green. 


egg-shaped, 


scaly, or 


1-2 ft. di- 


Pitch pine 


3-5 in. long. 


with small 


broken by 


ameter 




stifi 


sharp spines 
on scales 


irregular 
furrows 




Pinus 


2 in a cluster. 


2-4 in. long. 


Dark gray. 


40-90 ft. high, 


divaricata 


1-2 in. long. 


smooth, 


scaly, rough 


1-2 ft. di- 


Jack pine 


thick, twisted, 


strongly 


and rather 


ameter 




sharp pointed 


curved, per- 
sistent for 
years 


thin 




Pinus 


2 and 3 in a 


3-6 in. long, 


Cinnamon red 


60-200 ft. high. 


ponderosa 


cluster, 3-15 


hard, with 


to black, 


3-8 ft. di- 


Bull pine 


in. long, yel- 


sharp curved 


divided into 


ameter 




low-green. 


points on end 


large plates 






shiny 


of scales 






Pinus syl- 


2 in a cluster. 


1 to 2§ in. long, 


Reddish gray 


20 to 50 ft. 


vestris 


1 to 2 in. long. 


small de- 


and scaly 


high, 10 to 15 


Scotch pine 


twisted and 
sharp pointed, 
blue-green 


ciduous spine, 
single and 
clustered 




in. diameter 



Our pines are known by such names as ''hard pines," 
"soft pines," "yellow pines," " white pines," "pitch pines," 
all of which are given them by the lumberman and the 
carpenter, depending on the amount of pitch any piece 



46 The Farm Woodlot 

may contain or whether it is hard or soft and whether 
the color is white or yellowish. These names are confusing 
and uncertain. A standard common name should always 
be used in speaking of any of these trees so that others 
may know what kind of pine is meant. 

The Scotch pine and Austrian pine are not native to this 
country, but have been introduced from Europe. They 
are valuable trees for planting in certain places and are 
used particularly in farm plantations. 

The larches 

The larches are distinguished from the pines chiefly 
by their leaves. In summer the foliage is very different, 
and in the winter the larches are without leaves as are 
the oaks and elms. Of the three larches occurring natu- 
rally in the United States but one is found in the eastern 
half. This one is the common tamarack of the north 
woods and chiefly of the swamps. The European larch 
is a species introduced from Europe and is a better and 
larger tree than our native tamarack. It is used for 
ornamental planting and, to considerable extent, for farm 
planting. It is a valuable tree for the farm woodlot 
as it is a rapid grower and produces very excellent wood. 

The wood of the larch is hard, durable in the soil and 
is resinous. Our native larch is distinctly a swamp 
tree of the northern states and Canada, and in most of 
the tamarack swamps it does not attain very large size, 
usually forming excellent pole and post wood. 

The larches do not sprout, and new trees must always 
be grown from seed. 



Dendrology 

The Kinds of Larches 



47 





Name 


Leaves 


Cones 


Bark 


Size 


Larix 


In brush-like 


Small, light 


Thin, reddish 


50 to 60 ft. 


laricina 


tufts, about 


brown, f in. 


and in small 


high, 18 to 


Tamarack 


1 in. long, 
bright green, 
turning yellow 
in autumn 
when they fall 


long, globular 


scales 


20 in. in di- 
ameter 


Larix 


In brush-like 


From f to 1| in. 


Dark grayish 


About 100 ft. 


europsea 


tufts f to 1 


long, much 


brown and 


high, and 


European 


and \ in. long, 


larger than 


in small 


from 1 to 2 


larch 


bright green, 
falling each 
autumn 


the above 


scales 


ft. in diam- 
eter 





The spruces. Fig. 5 

There are seven native spruces in the United States, 
three of which occur in the East. Of these three, the red 
spruce is the most important. White spruce is next in 
value and the black spruce of least value. The Norway 
spruce is a native of Europe and has been introduced into 
this country largely as an ornamental tree. It is a rapid- 
growing and comparatively short-lived tree. The conical 
crown with its beautiful drooping branches becomes open 
and ragged after about thirty years. The spruces are 
important timber trees. The soft, light-colored straight- 
grained wood has many very important uses. The red 
spruce furnishes the best wood for sounding-boards used 
for all kinds of musical instruments, and the white spruce 
supplies the best material for wood pulp from which 
paper is made. The spruces are readily distinguished 
from the other cone-bearing trees, chiefly by their leaves. 



48 



The Farm Woodlot 




Fig. 5. — Three spruces. White spruce twig (Picea canadensis). 
Norway spruce coue on left. Cone of white spruce on right. 



Dendrology 



49 



The leaves are single and are arranged on all sides of the 
branch. They are short, stiff, and usually sharp pointed. 

The Kinds of Spruces 



Name 


Leaves 


Cones. 


Bahk 


Size 


Picea 


Blue-green or 


On short stems 


Gray-brown, 


60 to 100 ft. 


canadensis 


pale blue, \ 


2 in. long, 


breaking 


high, 1 ft. 


White spruce 


to X in. long 


slender and 


into thin 


to 20 in. 






pale green 


scales 


in diameter 


Picea 


Dark yellow- 


Stalked, li to 


Thin, red- 


50 to 80 ft. 


rubens 


green, very 


2 in. long. 


brown. 


high, 1 to 3 


Red spruce 


glossy, about 
3 in. long 


greenish 
purple 


scaly 


ft. diameter 


Picea 


Blue-green not 


3 to 1 in. long. 


Gray-brown, 


20 to 60 ft. 


mariana 


glossy, \ in. 


ovate, gray- 


scaly, thin 


high, 6 to 18 


Black spruce 


long, stiff 


brown, per- 
sistent for 
many years 




in. diameter 


Picea 


Dark-green, 


4 to 7 in. long, 


Thin, reddish 


50 to 100 ft. 


excelsa 


usually shin- 


light brown 


brown 


high, 1 to 2 


Norway 


ing, 1 to 1 in. 






ft. in di- 


spruce 


long, pointed 






ameter 



The firs 

Of the nine firs in the United States, two occur in the 
eastern part ; one of these, the balsam fir or more commonly 
known as the balsam, is northern. This tree is readily 
recognized from the nature of its cones and the resin 
blisters in the bark. The firs do not have resin in the 
wood as do the pines and spruces. This resin or balsam 
that occurs in the bark is collected, and furnishes the 
Canada balsam of commerce. The cones stand upright, 
and when mature they fall to pieces, leaving nothing on 



50 



The Farm Woodlot 



the tree except the slender axis to which the cone scales 
were attached. The wood is light, soft, not strong, 
coarse-grained, brownish yellow in color and is very 
perishable in the soil. It furnishes poor lumber and is 
largely used for fuel; also for poor-grade lumber used 
largely for making packing boxes. The firs are used to 
some extent for ornamental planting about farmhouses, 
and the average northern woodlot usually has some 
balsam firs scattered among the other trees. 

The Common Fir 



Name 


Leaves 


Cones 


Bark 


Size 


Abies 

balsamea 
Balsam fir 


1 to li in. 
long, dark 
green above, 
white under- 
neath 


Upright on 
branch, dark 
rich purple, 2 
to 4 in. long 


I in. thick, 
rich brown, 
scaly, with 
numerous 
resin blisters 


40 to 60 ft. 
high, 12 to 
20 in. di- 
ameter 



The hemlock 
Of the four hemlocks in the United States, two are 
eastern and two are western. Of the eastern species, 
Tsuga canadensis is found usually among the trees of the 
woodlot or farm forest throughout the northern states 
from Minnesota eastward. The hemlocks are large trees 
with many limbs and a rough, reddish bark. The leaves 
are arranged on opposite sides of the branches and are 
short and shiny above and light colored beneath. The 
cones are very small for such a large tree and occur on 
the ends of the branches. The wood is brittle, coarse- 
grained, stiff and splintery and hard to work. It decays 
very quickly when used in moist places. The bark is 



Dendrology 



51 



very rich in tannin and is usually more valuable than the 

wood. 

The Common Hemlock 



Name 


Leaves 


Cones 


Bark 


Size 


Tsuga 

canadensis 
Hemlock 


Green above, 
white under- 
neath, about 
5 in. long 


I in. long, light 
brown, on 
ends of 
branches 


Cinnamon red 
or dark 
gray, deeply 
furrowed 
and rough 


40 to 70 ft. 
high, 2 to 4 
ft. diameter 



The white cedar 

The white cedar is frequently called arborvitse. There 
are only two species in the United States, one eastern and 
the other western. The eastern species is a tree of the 
northern swamp regions, and along streams. The white 
cedar is often cultivated and is very valuable for decorative 
planting. It forms an excellent hedge. Almost every 
northern farm forest has white cedar scattered in the wet 
places. The wood is light, soft, rather brittle and coarse- 
grained, pale yellow-brown and very aromatic. It is 
very durable in the soil and is an excellent wood for fence 
posts, telephone poles, shingles, and so on. 

The Common White Cedar 



Name 


Leaves 


Cones 


Bark 


Size 


Thuya 

occiden- 

talis 
White cedar 


Scale-like, \ in. 
long with 
resin gland 


3 to ^ in. long, 
brownish yel- 
low when 
mature 


Thin, light 
red brown, 
shedding in 
vertical 
strips 


40 to 60 ft. 
high, 1 to 3 
ft. diameter 



52 



The Farm Woodlot 



The red cedar 

The red cedar is often called the red juniper. There 
are about eleven species of junipers in the United States, 
but only one that grows to tree size in northeastern America. 
The red cedar is a tree of dry and gravelly places and is 
found mostly along fences and in old abandoned fields. 
It grows abundantly on the steep dry ridges along rivers 
and small streams. The red cedar is readily separated 
from the other conifers by its fruit, which is a cone changed 
to a small blue berry. These berries are usually found on 
the trees at all times of the year. The wood is light, 
fine-grained, weak, easily worked and very durable in the 
soil. Cedar oil is distilled from the wood, and the shavings 
of the wood are used to preserve woolens against moths. 
The fragrant wood is used for many special purposes, 
as in making pencils and pen holders. As a post material 
about the farm, the red cedar is of great value. 

The Common Red Cedar 





Name 


Leaves 


Cones 


Bark 


Size 


Juniperus 

virginiana 
Red cedar 


Scale-like and 
awl-shaped, 
dark blue- 
green 


i in. in diam- 
eter, appear- 
ing as a blue- 
green berry 


Thin, light 
brown 
tinged with 
red, sheds 
in strips 


20 to 50 ft. 
high, 8 to 18 
in. diameter 



THE BROADLEAF TREES 



The trees with Inroad leaves are widely different in 
kind and the number of species is very large. They 
comprise the common hardwoods and softwoods. 



Dendrology 53 

Key to the Genera of the Common Broadleaf Trees^ 

I. Branches, leaves and buds opposite. 

A. Leaves simple with large lobes: seeds in pairs and 

winged : buds mostly round 
and red. The maples. 

B. Leaves compound, without lobes but toothed : seeds 

single and winged : buds pointed 
and dark brown or black. 

The ashes. 
II. Branches, leaves and buds alternate. 
A. The leaves simple. 

1. Leaves with large lobes: fruit an acorn: buds 

scaly and clustered on ends of 
twigs. The oaks. 

2. Leaves not lobed but toothed on edges. 

a. Seeds in a burr. 

1. Burr large and very spiny : nut dark 

brown and edible : bark fur- 
rowed vertically. 

The chestnut. 

2. Burr small with short blunt spines : nut 

three-sided, light brown and 
edible : bark gray and smooth. 

The beech. 

b. Seeds not in a burr. 

1. The seeds disc-shaped and papery, 

ripening as new leaves appear : 
branches very fine and often 
zig-zag : tree vase-shaped. 

The elms. 

2. The seeds very small, attached to tufts 

of cotton, 
o. Buds usually large, covered with 
many scales : bark usually 
smooth and light colored. 

The poplars. 

1 This key includes only the common and useful trees of the farm woodlot. 



54 The Farm Woodlot 

b. Buds small, covered with one 
hood-like scale : silky under- 
neath scale : bark dark colored. 
The willows. 

3. The seeds in a small woody cone : buds 

with many scales : bark smooth, 
with horizontal markings, roll- 
ing back horizontally in thick 
or thin layers. The birches. 

4. The seeds in a growth resembling a 

hop with many seeds each in a 
papery sac : bark ashy gray 
and scaly : branches very fine 
with small scaly buds. 

The hornbeam. 
B. The leaves compound. 

1. Fruit a large nut with a rough shell and an 

entire husk : pith in twigs 
honeycombed and brown : buds 
gray and silky. 

The walnuts. 

2. Fruit a medium-sized nut with a smooth shell 

and a divided husk : pith in 
twigs solid (not honeycombed) : 
buds gray or yellow. 

The hickories. 

3. Fruit a bean-like pod : branches with small 

brown spines : leaves doubly 
compound : buds sunken into 
the bark of the twigs each be- 
tween a pair of spines. 

The locust. 

The maples. Figs. 6, 7, 8 

The maples are fast-growing trees and are found in 
almost any woodlot. They furnish high-grade and valu- 



Dendrology 



55 




Fig. 6. — Silver or soft maple {Acer saccharinum) . 



56 



The Farm Woodlot 



able wood and have a dense-foliaged crown, making most 
of them valuable for decorative planting. The maples 
may be recognized by their opposite, broad, coarsely lobed 




Fig. 7. — Sugar maple (Acer saccharum). 

leaves, their winged seed growing in pairs, and their 
opposite buds usually rounded and dark red in color. The 
red and silver maples produce their red blossoms before 



Dendrology 



57 



the leaves are out and their seed is ripe in early summer. 
The sugar maple and box elder bloom after the leaves 




Fig. 8. — Box elder {Acer Negundo). 



are out and ripen their seed in the fall. The sugar maple 
is the most valuable species for wood as well as for its 
good qualities as a shade tree. It is an excellent fuel 



58 



The Farm Woodlot 



wood. The red and silver maples are very commonly 
known as soft maples. They are faster growers than the 
sugar maple but do not furnish wood as hard and valuable. 
They prefer moist soil and will produce good fuel wood in 
a comparatively short time. The box elder is not generally 
considered a maple. It is the poorest of the four. It has 
compound leaves resembling the ash, and for this reason 

The Kinds of Maples 



Name 


Leaves 


Buds 


Bark 


Fruit 


Acer 


3 to 5 lobes, 


Opposite, 


Brownish red 


Seed winged 


rubrum 


doubly 


rounded and 


on twigs. 


in pairs, ripe 


Red maple 


toothed, 


red, clustered 


gray on 


in early 




whitish under- 


flower buds 


trunk and 


summer 




neath, simple 




limbs 




Acer 


Lobes usually 5, 


Very similar to 


Greenish or 


Seed winged 


sacchari- 


long and nar- 


above but less 


yellowish 


and larger 


num 


row, toothed, 


red, slightly 


brown on 


than above, 


Silver maple 


silvery white 


green or yel- 


twigs, dark 


ripe in 




underneath 


lowish 


gray on 
trunk 


early 
summer 


Acer 


5- and 3-lobed, 


Opposite, dark 


Grayish brown 


Seed winged 


saccharum 


not toothed. 


brown or 


on twigs. 


and in pairs, 


Sugar 


pale fgreen 


black, sharply 


gray and 


ripe in the 


maple 


underneath. 
Simple 


pointed 


turning 
black on 
trunk 


fall 


Acer 


Compound, 3- to 


Opposite, small, 


Smooth and 


Seed winged 


Negundo 


5-pinnate, re- 


rounded and 


purplish 


in pairs, 


Box elder 


sembling the 


silky white 


green on 


ripe in fall, 




leaves of the 




twigs, gray- 


remain on 




ash 




ish brown 
on trunk 


tree all win- 
ter 



Dendrology 



59 



is sometimes called ash-leaved maple. It has been used 
very extensively as a tree for farm planting, as windbreaks 




Fig. 9. — White ash {Fraxinus americana) . 

and for shade. It is fairly rapid in its growth and when 
young is quite a beautiful tree. It soon becomes un- 



60 



The Farm Woodlot 



sightly and irregular in shapes, inclined to be crooked and 
defective unless given special care. All the maples 
sprout from the stump and roots. 

The ashes. Figs. 9, 10 
The Kinds of Ashes 



Name 


Leaves 


Buds 


Bark 


Fruit 


Fraxinus 


Compound, 7-9- 


Opposite, brown. 


Grayish green 


Seed winged, 


americana 


stalked, leaf- 


terminal 


and smooth 


ripe in late 


White ash 


lets occasion- 


large pointed. 


on twigs. 


fall, hangs 




ally toothed 


lateral 


dark gray 


on tree until 






rounded 


and brown, 
finely 

furrowed on 
trunk 


winter 


Fraxinus 


Compound, 7-1 1 


Opposite, black. 


Olive-green on 


Similar to 


nigra 


leaflets, not 


terminal 


twigs, ashy 


white ash 


Black ash 


stalked except 


large pointed. 


gray on 






terminal one 


lateral 
rounded 


trunk, fur- 
rowed and 
scaly 




Fraxinus 


Compound, 7-9 


Opposite, brown, 


Greenish gray 


Similar to 


pennsyl- 


leaflets. 


terminal 


on twigs. 


white ash 


vanica 


stalked ' large pointed. 


downy, dark 




Red ash 




lateral 
rounded 


gray or 
brown on 
trunk 




Fraxinus 


Compound, 5-9 


Opposite, rusty 


Greenish gray 


Similar to 


lanceolata 


leaflets. 


brown, blunt, 


on twigs, 


white ash 


Green ash 


stalked 


terminal 
pointed, 
lateral 
rounded 


smooth, 
dark gray- 
ish brown 
on trunk, 
furrowed 





Dendrology 



61 




Fig. 10. — A well-developed white ash. 



62 



The Farm Woodlot 




Fig. 1 



•Forest-grown white 
oak. 



The ashes are among the 
valuable trees of the woodlot 
because of the hard, strong 
and useful wood. The white 
ash produces the best wood of 
all the species and is the most 
valuable. It is also the most 
abundant. The various species 
of the ash are not easily dis- 
tinguished, since in their gen- 
eral characters they are quite 
similar. All the ashes have 
opposite buds and have the 
twigs flattened where the buds 
occur. The green ash is prob- 
ably a variety of the red ash, 
but is a better tree. It is 
largely planted in the prairie 
states and is a very valuable 
tree for this purpose. The 
wood of the ashes is mostly 
hard, strong, heavy and tough, 
and is used largely in the manu- 
facture of farm tools and im- 
plements. It is also used for 
making baskets, for interior 
finish and in furniture making. 
The ashes are not related to 
the common mountain ash, 
which belongs in the genus 
Sorbus of the rose family. 



Dendrology 



63 




Fig. 12. — Open-grown white oak. 



64 The Farm Woodlot 

The oaks. Figs. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 

The oaks are among the most common of the woodland 
trees. They very naturally fall into two distinct groups, 




Fig. 13. — White oak (Quercus alba). 

the white oaks and the black oaks. As a rule, the white 
oaks have finer grained, tougher and stronger wood than 



Dendrology 



65 



the black oaks. For farm purposes, the white oaks are 
preferable. Both groups furnish good fuel wood. The 




Fig. 14. — Burr oak on a city lot. 

white oak, burr oak, and so on belong to the white oak 
group and mature their fruit in one summer; the red 



66 



The Farm Woodlot 



Fig. 15.- 



■Burr oak (Quercus macro- 
carpa) . 



oak, scarlet oak and the 
like to the black oaks, and 
mature their fruit in two 
summers. The oaks pro- 
duce large quantities of 
seed. The acorns may be 
gathered in the fall and 
planted at once or kept 
moist and cold over winter 
and planted in the spring. 
The oaks also form excel- 
lent stump sprouts, and a 
good crop of fuel may be 
grown in this way. All 
the oaks are slow growers. 
The white oaks are par- 
ticularly slow and it re- 
quires almost a lifetime to 
develop a good tree. The 
red oak is about the fast- 
est grower of the oaks and 
is an excellent tree for 
planting. It furnishes 
good fuel and supplies 
many demands about the 
farm. It would be difficult 
to find a natural woodlot 
without some species of 
oak, and frequently sev- 
eral kinds are present in 
the same lot. 



Dendrology 



67 




Fig. 16. — Red oak {Quercus rubra). 



68 



The Farm Woodlot 




Fig. 17. — Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea). 



The different kinds of oaks found in the average 
woodlot may readily be distinguished by consulting the 
following contrast : — 



Dendrology 



69 



1. Acorns maturing in one season: bark ashy gray: lobes of 

leaves rounded : buds rounded. White oaks. 

2. Acorns maturing in two seasons : bark almost black : lobes 

of leaves bristle-tipped : buds pointed. Black oaks. ■ 

The White Oaks 



Name 


I/EAVES 


Buds 


Bark 


Fruit 


Quercus 


Evenly lobed, 


Rounded, scaly. 


Broken into 


Light brown. 


alba 


usually seven- 


grayish brown 


soft irregular 


elongated, 


White oak 


lobed, bright 


and scurfy 


flakes, ashy 


about 1 in. 




green above, 




gray, smootli 


long, in cup 




whitish under- 




on branches 


about i its 




neath 






length 


Quercus 


Scalloped and 


Rounded, scaly, 


Divided into 


About 1 in 


platanoides 


lobed, broad, 


short and 


broad flat 


broad and 


Swamp 


narrowing 


thick, incon- 


ridges. 


thick, gray- 


White 


toward petiole 


spicuous. 


grayish 


ish brown. 


oak 




scurfy, green- 


brown on 


in cup 






ish or dark 


trunk, dark 


about 3 its 






gray brown 


gray and 
scaly on 
branches 


length 


Quercus 


Not lobed but 


Usually pointed. 


Very rough 


Light brown. 


Prinus 


coarsely scal- 


scaly and 


and hard. 


elongated. 


Chestnut 


loped, oblong. 


smooth. 


deeply fur- 


an inch or 


oak 


yellowish 


brown 


rowed, dark 


more in 




green 




gray 


length, in a 
thin cup 
about 1 its 
length 


Quercus 


Upper portion 


Small, blunt. 


Gray brown. 


Variable in 


macrocarpa 


scalloped. 


and rough 


scaly very 


size i-2 in. 


Burr oak 


lower portion 


gray, usually 


corky on 


long with 




deeply lobed. 


pubescent 


twigs, with 


very large 




dark green. 




prominent 


fringed cup 




shiny above, 




corky ridges 


almost cov- 




pale under- 




on twigs 


ering acorn 




neath 









70 



The Farm Woodlot 



The Black Oaks 



Name 


Leaves 


Buds 


Bark 


Fruit 


Quercus 


Short lobes. 


Scaly, pointed. 


Dark gray or 


Large, reddish 


rubra 


bristle-tipped. 


short and 


black, rough 


brown, 1 in. 


Red oak 


broad, dark 


broad, smooth 


and deeply 


or more in 




green above 


and reddish 


and broadly 


length, cup 




and yellowish 


brown 


ridged. 


very shallow 




green below. 




smooth on 


and flat, 




red in autumn 




twigs, no 
dead stubs 
on trunk 


about J of 
acorn in cup, 
one-year-old 
acorns present 
in winter 


Quercus 


Long lobed and 


Similar to above, 


Very similar 


Smaller than 


coccinea 


lacy in appear- 


but usually 


to above. 


above, broad 


Scarlet 


ance, bristle- 


with tips 


usually 


and short, less 


oak 


tipped, bright 


hairy 


slightly 


than 1 in. held 




green above, 




rougher, 


in a heavy cup 




scarlet in 




trunk usu- 


for about j its 




autumn 




ally with 
many small 
stubs, on 
twigs 
smooth 


length, one- 
year-old acorns 
present in 
winter 


Quercus 


Resembling red 


Long, sharply 


Almost black. 


Very similar to 


velutina 


oak in shape 


pointed, 5- 


rough and 


scarlet oak 


Black or 


but glossy 


sided and cov- 


furrowed on 


except cup is 


Yellow 


above, with 


ered With gray 


trunk. 


rougher and 


oak 


yellowish 


hairs 


smooth on 


has fringed 




petioles 




branches, 
inner bark 
orange 
colored 


margm, one- 
year-old acorns 
present in 
winter 



Dendrology 



71 



The Black Oaks — Continued 



Name 


Leaves 


Buds 


Bark 


Fruit 


Quercus 


Resembling 


Very small, 


Very dark, 


Very small. 


palustris 


scarlet oak 


pointed. 


finely fur- 


dark brown. 


Pin oak 


except 


smooth, dark 


rowed and 


with vertical 




smaller 


brown, scaly 


hard, nu- 
merous little 
dead 

branches on 
trunk 


black stripes 
radiating from 
tip, flesh yel- 
low, one-year- 
old acorns pres- 
ent in winter 



The chestnut 

There are two species of chestnut in eastern America, 
but only one is of importance as a timber tree, and this 
is the common American chestnut. Everyone within 
the natural range of the chestnut knows the tree and its 
fruit. The tree is very generally distributed throughout 
the hardwood forest of the United States, and almost 
every farm woodlot will have chestnut amongst the other 
species. Chestnut is particularly valuable about the 
farm as a post timber and for all kinds of fencing and for 
any purpose for which wood durable in the soil is needed. 
It is not particularly strong and supplies a different kind 
of farm wood from most other common species. It is 
also a desirable tree for its fruit, which is a rather large 
and very spiny burr containing from one to three rich 
brown nuts, very delicious to the taste. These ripen 
in the fall about the time frost appears. Chestnut grows 
very readily from the seed but makes better and more 
rapid growth from stump sprouts. A tree grown from the 



72 



The Farm Woodlot 



seed will, when cut down, send up a number of shoots from 
the stump that in 25 or 30 years will grow into good sized 
poles and produce three or four on the same stump which 
produced one tree before. This sprout system is the most 
profitable way to grow chestnut on the farm. 

The American Chestnut 



Name 


Leaves 


Buds 


Bark 


Fruit 


Castanea 


Simple, oblong, 


Scaly, smooth. 


Very dark 


A globose and 


dentata 


coarsely 


rounded, and 


gray and 


very spiny burr 


American 


toothed, alter- 


yellowish 


deeply fur- 


containing one 


chestnut 


nate, dark 


brown in 


rowed on 


or more shiny 




yellow green 


color 


trunk. 


dark brown. 




in color 




smooth and 
brown on 
twigs, often 
with a yel- 
lowish tinge 


thin-shelled, 
sweet and 
edible nuts 



The beech 

The American beech is a very characteristic tree and 
when once known is not confused with other trees, since 
there is but one species in this country. There are several 
other beeches in America, but they have been brought 
from Europe and are found planted for decorative pur- 
poses in parks and on lawns. They may usually be known 
by their deep purple leaves or green deeply cut leaves. 
Our native beech is a beautiful tree with smooth, tight- 
fitting steel- or light-gray bark and simple, alternate, 
oval leaves with coarse serrations. The fruit is a small 
prickly burr, very different from that of the chestnut, 
inclosing one or two small light brown triangular or three- 



Dendrology 



73 



sided, sweet and edible nuts. The wood is fine-grained, 
hard and strong, but not durable when in contact with 
the soil or when used in a moist situation. The wood 
makes a good interior finish and flooring, and is used for 
handles. About the farm, it is especially valuable for 
fuel and. for purposes for which a strong wood is needed 
and where it will remain dry. The beech will grow 
excellently in a woodlot under the other and taller trees. 
It forms an excellent understory in forestry. The Ameri- 
can beech must not be confounded with the so-called 
blue beech. The latter is a small tree and is entirely 
distinct from the former. In winter, the American beech 
may readily be recognized by its long, sharply pointed 
light brown and scaly buds and its smooth gray bark. 
No other tree in our northern forests has a bud like the 
beech. 

The American Beech 



Name 


Leaves 


Buds 


Bark 


Fruit 


Fagus 


Simple, alter- 


About 1 in. long, 


Smooth, close- 


A small prickly 


ameri- 


nate, toothed. 


slender and 


fitting and 


burr with one or 


cana 


green on both 


sharply- 


bluish gray 


two thin- 


American 


sides 


pointed, scaly 


or steel 


shelled three- 


beech 




and shining 
brown 


blue 


sided light 
brown nuts, 
kernel sweet 
and edible 



The elms. Fig. 18 

The elms are valuable trees both for their strong, hard 
and tough wood and for decorative planting. The elm 
tree assumes a fountain-like or vase form and with its droop- 



74 



The Farm Woodlot 



ing outer branches is one of our most beautiful shade trees. 

The elms are early blooming trees. The blossoms appear 

long before the 
leaves, and the 
seeds are ripe 
about the time 
the leaves are 
fully developed. 
The disc-like 
green seeds fall 
to the ground as 
soon as ripe and 
when the soil is 
favorable, they 
grow in a few 
days. Elm seeds 
must be planted 
as soon as col- 
lected. The most 
common species 
is the American 
or white elm. 
The cork or rock 
elm may easily 
be distinguished 
by the corky 
ridges on the 
bark of the twigs. 
The slippery elm 
has very hairy 

American elm. Typical form. buds and the 




Dendrology 



75 



inner bark is mucilaginous and sweet to the taste. Elm 
wood has many uses and is a valuable wood about the 
farm and home, whenever strong and tough wood is 
desired. For a shade tree in the yard and on home 
grounds, the elm is valued next to the maple for the beauty 
of its crown and the deep cool shade it produces. A 
fine lawn specimen if far more valuable for its beauty and 
shade than for its wood. 

The Kinds of Elms 



Name 


Leaves 


Buds 


Bahk 


Fruit 


Ulinus 


Alternate, simple 


Scaly, smooth, 


Dark brown, 


A papery wafer. 


ameri- 


toothed, and 


brown, leaf 


smooth on 


winged, ripe in 


cana 


rough above. 


buds small. 


twigs, ashy 


spring before 


White or 


smooth under- 


flower buds 


gray, fur- 


leaves are full 


American 


neath 


large and flat 


rowed on 


grown 


elm 






trunk 




Ulmus 


Alternate, 


Very similar to 


Dark brown 


Similar to above 


race- 


simple 


above 


with ridges 




mosa 


toothed, and 




of cork on 




Rock or 


similar to 




twigs, ashy 




Cork 


above 




gray and 




elm 






furrowed on 
trunk 




Ulmus 


Alternate, 


Rounded, dark 


Dark brown 


Similar to above 


pubes- 


simple 


brown, hairy. 


and rough, 




cens 


toothed, rough 


large flat 


hairy on 




Slippery or 


and harsh on 


flower buds. 


twigs, gray 




Red elm 


both sides 


very hairy 


and fur- 
rowed on 
trunk, inner 
bark muci- 
laginous 





76 The Farm Woodlot 

The poplars. Figs. 19, 20, 21 

The genus Populus, or the poplars, is a group of trees not 
very well understood by the layman. They are commonly 




Fig. 19. — Trembling aspen or popple (Populus 
tremuloides). 

known as the cottonwoods or the aspens. To this group 
belong such trees as the Norway poplar and the North 
Carolina poplar. These are varieties of the common 
Cottonwood or Populus deltoides. The poplars must not 



Dendrology 77 

be confused with the yellow poplar or tulip tree. This 
latter is a very different tree and is closely related to the 




Fig. 20. — Big-tooth aspen (Populus grandidentata). 

magnolias. The poplars are very widely distributed 
over the United States and are particularly conspicuous 



78 



The Farm Woodlot 



in the northern part, 
particularly on cut- 
over and burned-over 
forest land. The trees 
of this group always 
may be distinguished 
by the leaves and fruit. 
The leaves have their 
petioles flattened at 
right angles to the 
blade of the leaf and 
this causes them to 
flutter in the slightest 
breeze. They always 
bloom in early spring 
before the leaves are 
out, and the seed is 
ripe and ready for dis- 
semination by the time 
the leaves are about 
fully developed. The 
seed is widely scattered 
by the little cotton 
tuft to which it is at- 
tached. This cotton is 
borne only on the pis- 
tillate tree, hence the 
nuisance about the 
farm and home may be 
entirely avoided by planting the staminate form. Al- 
though the poplars grow well from seed, all of them grow 




Fig. 21. — Cottonwood {Populus del- 

toides) . 



Dendrology 



79 



from cuttings, and it is in this way that they are propa- 
gated. 

The wood of all the species is soft, fine-grained, weak 
and very perishable in the earth. Most of the species are 
rapid growers, especially the forms known as Norway 

The Kinds of Poplar 



Name 


Leaves 


Buds 


Bark 


Fruit 


Populus 


Broad and 


Alternate, 


Greenish graj' 


A catkin with 


tremu- 


rounded, 


sharply 


and almost 


many capsules. 


ioides 


shining above. 


pointed and 


smooth, 


each with 


Quaking 


flattened 


almost black. 


with black 


many small 


aspen, 


petiole, finely 


shiny and 


scars, mner 


seeds attached 


or 


toothed 


sometimes 


bark bitter 


to a cottony 


popple 




slightly sticky 


• 


tuft which 
serves to float 
it in the air, 
mature at 
time the 
leaves are 
developed 


Populus 


Broad and oval 


Alternate, blunt 


Greenish gray. 


Very similar to 


grandi- 


with very 


pointed, light 


turning 


above except 


dentata 


coarse serra- 


gray and 


black. 


developing a 


Large- 


tions, or 


hairy, not 


smooth 


little later 


tooth 


coarsely 


sticky 


except on 




aspen 


scalloped, 
upper surface 
dull 




old trunk, 
inner bark 
not bitter 




Populus 


Triangular with 


Alternate, long 


Light gray on 


Similar to above 


del- 


finely toothed 


pointed, sticky 


young trees. 




toides 


margin, smooth 


with a resin- 


blackish 




Cotton- 


above 


ous balsam 


gray and 




wood 






very rough 
on old 

trunks 





80 The Farm Woodlot 

poplar and the North CaroUna poplar. These two 
trees are very extensively used in plantations, particularly 
in the prairie and northern states. The wood is valuable 
for fuel and gives good-sized timber in a short time. 
For fence posts, the wood is very suitable and lasting when 
properly treated with creosote or some other wood pre- 
servative. Cottonwood lumber has many uses and is 
becoming more prominent as other woods are becoming 
more rare and consequently more expensive. The wood 
now finds its way into finishing material for buildings and 
finds a large use for packing boxes and wood pulp. 

There are a number of poplars that have been introduced 
from Europe and most of these can easily be distinguished 
from our native species. The Lombardy poplar is one 
of these and is very commonly planted. It may readily 
be recognized by its tall spire-like form, having all the 
limbs vertically arranged, forming a spire. Another 
common species is the white poplar, sometimes wrongly 
called the "silver maple." This species forms a large 
wide-spreading crown and has light colored bark ; the 
upper side of the leaf is green while the under is white 
and cottony.. 

The willows. Fig. 22 

There are so many species of the willows that it is a diffi- 
cult matter to present any kind of classification that is 
of value. The willows may be found in almost every 
piece of wood land, particularly if there is considerable 
moisture in the soil or if there is a swampy area. The 
willows belong to the same family as the poplars and the 
two genera have many characters in common. A willow 



Dendrology 



81 



may always be distinguished from a 
poplar by examining the bud scale. 
The poplars have scaly buds, while the 
willows have but one bud scale, which 
covers the bud like a hood. The blos- 
soms are very similar, being borne in 
separate aments and on separate trees. 
The blossoms appear very early in the 
spring, and the seeds are in some 
species scattered early in the spring 
and in others in midsummer. The 
willows have their buds covered, under 
the hoodlike scale, with a whitish silky 
pubescence which becomes very showy 
as soon as growth begins and the bud 
scale is pushed off. These silky buds 
give the name of ''pussy willow" to 
practically any of the species with buds 
large enough to become showy. Some 
species have very large buds and when 
fully developed produce a very beauti- 
ful appearance On lawn trees or wher- 
ever decorative effects are appreciated. 

The wood of the willows is about the 
same as that of the poplars so far as 
farm forestry is concerned. They are 
fast growers, producing soft, light, 
weak and perishable wood which is put 
to about the same uses about the farm 
as poplar. 

Many of our willows are introduced 



Fig. 22. — Willow 
(Salix) . 



82 The Farm Woodlot 

from Europe and this makes it more difficult to know all 
the native species. Willows are good trees for windbreak 
purposes, particularly where snow traps are necessary 
about plantations. Willows produce great quantities of 
seed almost every year but it is not desirable to propagate 
them from seed, since they grow very well from cuttings, 
which method of propagation is the one used by all planters. 

The birches 

Every farm woodlot has some species of birch and 
frequently there are a number of species. The black and 
yellow birches are the most common trees in the deep 
woods and are usually found along streams and in moist 
places. The former is the larger tree, as a rule, and does 
not favor moist places quite so much as the latter. By 
consulting the following key, the common birches may be 
readily distinguished. As a rule, after a little observation 
they may be distinguished easily by their bark. The black 
and yellow birches have a pronounced odor and flavor 
of wintergreen in the inner bark. In the black birch this 
flavor is very strong, while in the yellow it is milder and 
modified by a slightly bitter taste. From the branches 
and bark of the black birch is distilled the extract of winter- 
green. Both these trees arc valuable for their wood, 
which has very general use for flooring and interior finish 
as well as for furniture and many other purposes. About 
the farm the birches are very useful for the excellent fuel 
which they produce. The wood has good heating quali- 
ties and burns without sparking. The gray and paper 
birches are less important except for fuel. They usually 
occur after a forest fire or after lumbering, and are charac- 



Dendrology 



83 



The Kinds of Birch 



Name 


Leaves 


Buds 


Bark 


Fruit 


Betula 


Alternate, oval, 


Scaly, green and 


Dark brown. 


Resembling a 


lenta 


simple, finely 


brown, stami- 


shiny on 


cone, remam- 


Sweet or 


toothed 


nate aments 


twigs, very 


ing on tree and 


Black 




present in 


dark on 


shedding seed 


birch 




winter 


trunk, re- 
sembling 
cherry, 
inner bark 
very aro- 
matic 


in late fall and 
winter 


Betula 


Alternate, oval. 


Very similar to 


Light brown 


Very similar to 


lutea . 


simple, finely 


above 


and shiny 


above 


Yellow 


toothed, dull 




on twigs. 




birch 


green on 
upper side 




silvery gray 
or straw 
colored on 
trunk, com- 
ing off in 
curls, less 
aromatic 
than above 




Betula 


Alternate, short 


Small, scaly. 


Brownish red 


Very similar to 


papyri- 


pointed. 


sharply 


on twigs. 


above 


fera 


doubly 


pointed. 


glossy. 




Paper 


toothed, not 


sometimes 


chalky 




birch 


shiny above 


waxy, stam- 
inate aments 
present in 
winter 


white on 

outside of 

trunk, 

brown 

underneath 

separating 

into thin 

papery 

layers, not 

aromatic 




Betula 


Alternate, long 


Small, pointed. 


Blackish on 


Very similar to 


populi- 


pointed, trian- 


waxy and 


twigs. 


above 


folia 


gular, shiny 


scaly, stam- 


chalky 




White or 


above and 


inate aments 


white with 




Gray 


doubly 


present in 


black 




birch 


toothed 


winter 


blotches on 
trunk, not 
papery, not 
aromatic 





84 



The Farm Woodlot 



teristic of such areas as well as of abandoned fields. The 
birches seed abundantly and the seed is scattered widely 
by the wind. They also sprout from the stump and in 
this way are prolific fuel producers. 

The hornbeam 

The hornbeam, or ironwood, is not a tree that is found in 

the farm plantation. It is very common and is found 

in practically every natural woodlot in which trees have 

had an equal opportunity to establish themselves. The 

hornbeam is sometimes called ironwood and is confused 

with the small tree called blue beech or ironwood. The 

two trees are small, but the hornbeam is by far the more 

valuable. The two trees may readily be distinguished 

from each other by the nature and color of the bark. The 

blue beech has a close-fitting dark gray bark and fluted 

trunk. 

The Common Hornbeam 



Name 


Leaves 


Buds 


Bark 


Fruit 


Ostrya 


Simple, alter- 


Very small, 


Light gray, 


Hop-like, con- 


virgin- 


nate, oval 


scaly and rich 


soft and 


sisting of a 


iana 


and finely 


brown in 


scaly. 


number of 


Hop Horn- 


toothed, re- 


color, stami- 


resembling 


papery sacs 


beam or 


sembling the 


nate aments 


the bark of 


each contain- 


ironwood 


elm 


present in 
winter with 
the buds 


a young 
white oak 


ing one seed 



The hornbeam is a valuable little tree for its tough 
and very hard and fine-grained wood. It does not grow 
to large size, but can be depended on to furnish a 
pole of exceptional strength and toughness. It is also 



Dendrology 



85 



good for handles and finds many uses 
about the farm. It produces consider- 
able quantities of seed and may readily 
be grown from seed. It will grow in any 
average woods soil, and in any woodlot in 
which it does not occur, it is well worth 
while to encourage its introduction. 

The ivalnuts. Fig. 23 

The walnuts are very desirable trees 
to have about the farm and woodlot. 
Of the walnuts native to the United 
States, there are but two species in the 
East and these are easily distinguished 
from' each other. In some sections of 
the country the hickories are locally 
called walnuts. This is not correct and 
leads to confusion. The English walnut 
also is found frequently planted about 
homes, but it has been introduced from 
Europe and does not belong to our trees. 
The black walnut and the butternut are 
quite different in their development as 
trees. The former is by far the better 
tree as well as the more valuable for its 
wood. The heart wood of this walnut 
is very dark colored and has a very fine 
grain, making it a very desirable and 
costly wood for furniture of all kinds. 
The roots of large trees are also very valuable, particularly 
for gun stocks. Good well-developed black walnut can 



Fig. 23. — Branch of 
butternut {Juglans 
cinerea) , showing 
chambered pith. 



86 



The Farm Woodlot 



be used, tree and stump. The butternut is in some places 
called the white walnut. It is usually a very much poorer 
tree in its development, forming a low, wide-spreading 
tree or frequently having a number of stems from the same 
root. The fruit of both species is valuable for food, and 
every farm boy knows walnuts and butternuts. For farm 
planting the walnuts are not the most desirable trees, 
since they require such good soil that the land is worth 
more for agriculture or horticulture than for tree growing. 
To be sure they will grow in poor soil, but so slowly that 
other trees are more valuable. For the farm the walnuts 
are better as individual trees planted about the farm or 
home grounds where such trees are desired. As individual 
trees, the walnuts bear large quantities of fruit and they 

The Kinds of Walnut 



Name 


Leaves 


Buds 


Bark 


Fruit 


Juglans 


Compound, 15- 


Few scales. 


Light gray on 


Hard-shelled, 


nigra 


23 leaflets, 


covered with 


twigs, very 


globose with 


Black 


alternate 


silky gray 


dark or 


a green. 


walnut 




hairs, lateral 


blackish. 


smooth husk, 






buds super- 


rough and 


not sticky 






posed, pith 


deeply fur- 








chambered 


rowed on 








and brown 


trunk 




Juglans 


Compound, 11- 


Few scales, 


Greenish gray 


An elongated. 


cinerea 


• 17 leaflets, 


covered with 


on twigs. 


hard-shelled 


Butternut 


alternate 


silky gray 


gray and 


rough nut cov- 






hairs not so 


furrowed on 


ered by a yel- 






large as above. 


trunk 


lowish sticky 






pith 




husk 






chambered. 










and brown 







Dendrology 87 

are more desirable for this purpose than for wood and 
timber for the farm. Walnuts are easily grown from seed. 
They have the habit of sending straight down a very long 
and persistent tap-root very early in life, so that they are 
difficult trees to handle successfully in planting. It is 
always advisable to plant the seed in the place where the 
trees are desired, and if there is danger of squirrels digging 
out the nuts and eating them, it is well to coat them with 
tar or anything that will keep squirrels away. If safe 
from mice and squirrels, the nuts may be planted in the 
fall. Otherwise they will need to be kept in moist sand 
in a cold place all winter and planted in the spring as soon 
as the ground is free from frost. 

The hickories 

The hickories are very widely distributed in North 
America. Most of the species are very valuable for their 
wood and some are valuable also for their fruit. Almost 
every native farm woodlot will have some species of 
hickory. If not, trees of a desirable species can easily 
be grown by planting seed where the trees are desired. 
Not all the hickories produce edible fruit. Some are very 
bitter to the taste, while some others have a very heavy 
and much chambered shell, so that the kernel is small 
and difficult to extract. As a rule, hickories in the northern 
states with a heavy divided husk inclosing the nut have 
edible fruit. The husk usually separates from the nut 
naturally at the time the nuts come from the trees. Of 
all the hickories, the pecan hickory is the most valuable 
for the fruit. Second-growth hickory is a common name 
for young hickory that has grown rapidly from the seed 



88 



The Farm Woodlot 



The Kinds of Hickory 



Name 


Leaves 


Buds 


Bark 


Fruit 


Hicoria 


Compound, 7-9 


Scaly, large, egg- 


Brownish 


A thick-shelled 


alba 


alternate, 


shaped and 


gray and 


nut with a 


Mocker 


strong scented 


sharply 


hairy on 


thick, strong- 


Nut 




pointed, gray 


twigs, very 


odored woody 






and silky 


dark gray 
on trunk, 
hard and 
grooved 


husk separat- 
ing in thirds or 
quarters, ker- 
nel sweet 


Hicoria 


Compound, 


Similar to above 


Brownish 


A thin-shelled 


glabra 


3-5-7 leaflets, 


but very much 


gray and 


smooth nut 


Pignut 


alternate 


smaller 


smooth on 
twigs, dark 
gray, fur- 
rowed but 
smooth on 
trunk 


with thin 
leathery husk 
partially sep- 
arating, kernel 
bitter 


Hicoria 


Compound, 


Short, rounded. 


Brownish, 


A moderately 


ovata 


5-7 leaflets. 


scaly and 


smooth or 


thick-shelled 


Shagbark 


large, alternate 


pointed, outer 


hairy on 


smooth nut 






scales dark 


twigs, light 


in a heavy 






brown, inner 


gray and 


grooved husk 






scales silky 


shedding in 


separating into 






gray 


long hard 
strips or 


thirds or quar- 
ters, kernel 








plates 


sweet 


Hicoria 


Compound, 


Long, with few 


Smooth and 


A small smooth 


minima 


small leaflets 


scales, brassy 


gray on 


nut with a thin 


Bitter 


7-11, alter- 


yellow 


twigs. 


leathery husk 


Nut 


nate 




brownish 
gray and 
rather 
smooth with 
many fine 
furrows 


and very bitter 
kernel 



Dendrology 89 

or from stump sprouts and consists almost entirely of 
sap wood that is creamy white and very tough. This 
wood is very valuable for all sorts of handles and for 
repairing parts of farm implements and machinery, and 
for any purpose requiring a piece of exceptionally strong 
and tough wood. 

The locusts 

The term "locust" applies to several kinds of trees, two 
in particular, which are very different. In the northern 
states the name applies equally to the black locust, also 
called the yellow locust, and to the honey locust. These 
two trees, however, are very different, but are both known 
as locust. The black or yellow locust is a very valuable 
farm tree and grows abundantly in many parts of the coun- 
try. The honey locust is less valuable and is not so abun- 
dant. Both trees are ornamental and produce very fra- 
grant clusters of flowers coming in early summer after the 
leaves are all fully developed. The black locust may always 
be distinguished from the honey locust by the nature of 
the thorns, which are in pairs, and very short, one on each 
side of the bud in case of the black locust, and very long 
and three-pronged in case of the honey locust. The latter 
frequently has thorns on the trunk of the tree three and 
four inches long. The black locust grows well froin 
the seed and develops so rapidly, producing such hard 
and durable wood, that few trees excel it for farm pur- 
poses. The one great drawback to the extensive growing 
of this tree is the fact that the locust borer burrows in 
the wood of the trunk and large limbs, destroying the 
tree and rendering the wood worthless. No satisfactory 



90 



The Farm, Woodlot 



remedy has yet been found for preventing the attacks of 
this borer. 

The Kinds of Locust 



Name 


Leaves 


Buds 


Bark 


Fruit 


Robinia 


Compound with 


Small, gray, 


Rough, dark 


A light thin 


pseuda- 


many small 


silky and 


gray. 


dark brown 


cacia 


leaflets, dark 


sunken into 


deeply fur- 


pod with 


Black or 


green on 


the stem 


rowed, 


small black 


Yellow 


upper side, 


between two 


smooth and 


and very hard 


locust 


pale under- 


small thorns 


light brown 


seeds, usually 




neath 




on twigs 


on after the 
leaves have 
fallen 


Gleditsia 


Compound with 


Small, clustered 


Rough and 


A long and wide 


tri- 


many small 


and partially 


dark, fur- 


reddish brown 


acanthos 


leaflets, dark 


sunken in the 


rowed and 


pod, fleshy 


Honey 


above and 


stem, situated 


scaly with 


and usually 


locust 


pale under- 


below large 


many long 


twisted, 




neath 


ijnd long 


thorns on 


remains on the 






three-pointed 


the trunk, 


trees after the 






thorns 


bark on 
twigs brown 
and smooth 


leaves fall 



CHAPTER V 

PRACTICAL SYLVICULTURE, OR REGENERA- 
TION OF WOODLOTS 

Forest regeneration is the renewing or restoring of 
forests. It is conducted in two ways, — separately, or in 
combination. The two methods are called "natural 
regeneration/' when the new wood crop is started naturally 
by selfsown seed or by stump shoots, and "artificial re- 
generation," when the wood crop is started by sowing 
seeds or by planting seedlings or cuttings. 

NATURAL REGENERATION. FigS. 24-28 

A forest already established is implied in natural re- 
generation. The operations consist in so treating the 
woods that a new crop of trees becomes established as 
the old crop is cut and utilized. There are several 
systems of handling woodlands, depending on the 
nature of the soil and climate and the kind of trees. 
Some trees reproduce naturally from seed and stump 
shoots, others from seed only. For this reason, a forest 
or woodlot must be treated according to the kinds of trees 
that are present. 

The systems or methods used may be called 

1. Selection system. 

2. Strip system. 

3. Group system. 

4. Coppice or sprout system. 

91 



92 The Farm Woodlot 

Selection system 

This is nature's method of regeneration where different 
kinds of trees are in mixture and where the trees are of all 
ages. As old over-mature trees die and fall to the ground, 




Fig. 24. — Natural reproduction of Norway pine on cut-over lands. 

new and young trees soon spring up and fill in the openings. 
In practicing this system, only the ripe trees are taken and 
the open spaces left by them are readily filled in by young 
trees growing from seeds or sprouts. In this way trees 
may be selected, cut and taken out at any time, yet the 
forest is continuously maintained. 



Practical Sylviculture 



93 




Fig. 25. — Dense natural reproduction of Norway pine, showing vig- 
orous shoots. 



94 



The Farm Woodlot 



Strip system 

This system can be used only when there are trees that 
bear winged seeds, usually small and sufficiently light to 




Fig. 26. — Natural reproduction of white oak at the edge of the woodlot. 

be carried some distance by the wind, such as seed of 
any of the pines, spruces, maples, and the like. The 



96 The Farm Woodlot 

operations consist of cutting clear strips through the 
forest two or three times as wide as the trees are high and 
in no case any wider than the wind will scatter the seeds. 
The strips should run at right angles to the direction of 
the prevailing wind. The seed from the trees on one or 
both sides will then be scattered by the wind over the 
strip and a new growth of little trees will result. As 
soon as a strip is well stocked with new trees, usually in 
a few years, another strip may be cut, and so on until the 
entire forest has been harvested. 

Group system 

This system is the cutting and removal of ripe trees 
in groups throughout the forest and allowing the seed 
from the neighboring trees to supply the new trees. The 
groups may be scattered and occur wherever the ripe trees 
may be. (Fig. 27.) 

Coppice system 

This system can be used only with such trees as the 
chestnut and some oaks that grow very abundantly 
from the stumps of felled trees and soon restock the cut- 
over area with new growth in the form of sprouts. (Fig. 28.) 

In the choice of any system for the farm-forest or 
woodlot, the one that meets the best needs of the owner 
and is best suited to the kind of trees and existing condi- 
tions should be practiced. The usual farm forest con- 
sists of a mixture of species varying in size from small 
seedlings to ripe trees. For such, the selection system is 
the most natural and the best to practice, since it allows 
the removal of trees of any size and at any time with- 
out reducing the total forest area. 



Practical Sylviculture 



97 




Fig. 28. — Reproduction by stump sprouts. 



98 The Farm Woodlot 

ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION 

The artificial formation of woods is accomplished by 
direct seeding, by planting of seedlings or cuttings and by 
a combination of both. The methods of seed-sowing and 
of planting may now be considered. 

Direct seeding, or sowing of seed 
The success of direct seeding depends on the nature of 
the sowing, whether broadcast or in specially prepared 
spots called seed-spots, and the character of the soil- 
cover on the area to be sown. Direct seeding has many 
serious drawbacks. The high cost of seed and the un- 
certainty of good results in broadcast seeding have made 
the method an expensive one when practiced in the 
United States. Seeding in seed-spots is very much 
more economical and has given better results, for reasons 
to be pointed out farther on. The sowing of seed is 
advisable only when conditions are most favorable to 
the species of trees. Among these conditions may be 
mentioned the natural range, the soil and moisture, selec- 
tion of seed and preparation of the soil. 

Natural range. — Every species has a different range 
or territory, in which it is growing naturally. It is con- 
fined to this territory because the climate and soil condi- 
tions are there best suited to its growth, while the con- 
ditions elsewhere are either directly unfavorable or so 
much better suited to some other species that it is crowded 
out. Naturally the best growing trees are the most de- 
sirable for a plantation. To know that a locality is in 
the range of a desired species is not sufficient to determine 
the adaptability of that locality to sowing seed of that 



Practical Sylviculture 99 

species. There are other limitations that largely govern 
the suitability of localities for growing certain trees, the 
chief of which are soil and moisture. 

Soil and moisture. — The amount of moisture and the 
quality of the soil, both chemical and physical, frequently 
determine very largely the local tree growth. For ex- 
ample, the white pine is excluded from many areas well 
within its range on account of excessive moisture or the 
total lack of clay in the soil, while the tamarack, which 
has much the same range, is found in pure stands in the 
low swampy places, and even in mixture with the pine. A 
white pine planted in a swamp, or a tamarack on a dry 
hillside, would not do well even in the center of their 
range. Only when the climate and soil moisture are 
favorable, as indicated by the conditions of natural growth, 
can the success of any forest growth be assured. The 
exceptions to this rule in the case of individual trees will 
be considered under ornamental planting. 

, Selection of seed. — All seed for sowing should be 
cared for and tested as described in the "farm nursery" 
(page 1 12) . The quality of the seed for broadcast sowing is 
even more important than for seed-bed sowing, because 
it is likely to lie on the ground a much longer time before 
germination takes place. Moreover, the seed sown 
broadcast lies on the surface of a poorly prepared soil 
which the roots have to penetrate to obtain a footing. 
Only the vigorous-growing seeds can overcome this 
obstacle, and even many of them exhaust their vitality 
and die before they can establish a root system. 

Soil cover. — Practically every location in which seed- 
ing is under consideration will have a soil cover that 



100 The Farm Woodlot 

more or less interferes with the establishing of a stand of 
trees from sown seed. Chief among these soil covers are 
(1) grass sod, (2) brush, and (3) leaf litter. 

(1) Grass sod. — When grass has grown for any con- 
siderable length of time, the roots have become matted 
together, forming a tough sod. It is useless to sow seed 
on such ground. The stubble holds the seed suspended 
so that, if it germinates at all, the rootlet has to extend 
a distance through the air to reach the ground. 
Even then it is unable to compete with the roots of the 
grass. Such land should be thoroughly plowed before 
seeding, and if the sod is very heavy, the seeding should 
not be done until the next year. This gives a chance 
for the roots to rot and the soil to mellow. From the 
above, it is evident that sowing is not practicable any- 
where on the prairies outside of the natural range of 
forest trees. The grasses are predominant in this region 
and it is impossible for the tiny seedlings to compete with 
them successfully. Other conditions of moisture, sunlight, 
wind, and so on, are so different from those of the forest 
that the young trees die before they can adapt themselves 
to their new situation. This is often hard even for thrifty 
seedlings, and success cannot be expected of the smaller 
seedlings that are struggling for their lives. 

(2) Brush. — Whether the brush is too dense to permit 
sowing is a question that must be left largely to the judg- 
ment of the farmer. If the brush is dense enough to shade 
out or choke the young seedlings, of course there is no 
use in sowing seed. This is more likely to be the case with 
brush that has very thick, heavy foliage. Thin-leaved, 
light-foliaged brush is not likely to be too dense, and in 



Practical Sylviculture 101 

many cases rather protects than hinders the seedlings. 
Destroying this brush when necessary is often a difficult 
operation. Unfortunately, most of the brush plants sprout 
luxuriantly from the root when cut or burned over, and 
consequently an attempt to cut or burn the brush off a cer- 
tain tract often results in a second crop more dense than 
the first. Probably the best method is to cut the brush 
in early fall. The sprouts starting at this late date are 
caught by the early frosts before they have matured and 
are killed back. After such treatment, the stumps do not 
sprout very vigorously the next spring. Sheep are an 
effective means of cleaning up brush land. Enough 
sheep should be driven on the area in spring to crowd it, 
and they should be herded closely. Under these conditions 
they will browse the tender sprouts and injure them 
beyond recovery. In addition to browsing the sprouts, 
their sharp feet cut the leaf mold, especially in the 
early spring when the ground is soft, and expose the 
mineral soil, thus putting the ground in good shape for 
seeding. The first summer's grazing will kill most of the 
brush, while a short period of close grazing the next spring 
will catch the surviving sprouts and prepare the ground 
for immediate seeding. 

(3) Leaf litter. — In most wooded or brush lands, 
where fires have been absent for a long time, there will 
be a heavy soil-covering of fallen and partially decayed 
leaves. These leaves form a layer sometimes several 
inches thick, and so poorly decomposed that a germinating 
seed cannot reach the mineral soil. Leaf litter may 
contain enough moisture to cause seeds to germinate, 
but before the rootlet can force itself down into the soil it 



102 The Farm Woodlot 

has exhausted its vitality or become dry and consequently 
has been killed. Leaf litter when thoroughly decomposed 
and mixed with the soil is a perfect fertilizer, but in any 
other form it is merely a soil cover. When the leaf litter 
is not too thick, it may be sufficiently broken with a 
drag to enable the seeds to reach the soil. Cattle or sheep 
may trample it sufficiently to accomplish the same 
purpose. In cases in which fire will not harm any tree 
growth, this litter may be burned when thoroughly dry. 
Great precaution must be maintained to confine the fire 
to a small area at a time and never allow it to run be5''ond 
control. 

Preparation of land. — In practically every case, nat- 
ural forest land will need some preparation before seed- 
ing is done. The method of treating the soil is a matter 
for the farmer or owner to decide. It should always be 
done in the most economical manner, yet with thorough- 
ness. A spring- or peg-tooth harrow is an effective imple- 
ment when it can be used. A drag of any sort that will tear 
up the soil will be sufficient. Even a tree top with some 
heavy, strong limbs will serve as a rather effective drag. 
Whatever sort of implement is used, the operation should 
be continued until the soil is in proper condition to receive 
the seed. The trampling of cattle at certain times of 
the year, especially in early spring, may break up the 
surface layer of soil sufficiently. In small special areas, 
the plow may be used and the ground prepared as for 
grain crops. In every case the seedling must fasten 
its roots very early in life in the mineral soil in order 
that growth may continue. 

There is no special secret in the preparation of land 



Practical Sylviculture 103 

for tree growth. After examining a woodlot, any person 
acquainted with the conditions necessary for the growth 
of the seed of almost any field crop can readily see what 
may be done to enable the seed to get down into the 
mineral soil. It is largely a matter of good judgment. 

Seeding and planting 

Seeding and planting are methods for artificial regenera- 
tion of forests. The term seeding refers to the actual 
scattering of seed directly in the woods, either broadcast 
or on small specially prepared areas. By planting is 
meant the actual setting-out of small trees known as seed- 
lings that have been grown from seed in the farm nursery, 
or obtained elsewhere. At present, planting of seedlings 
is the method mostly used, and on small areas, such as 
the woodlot owner possesses, it seems to be the most 
advisable method. In some parts of the country, experi- 
ments in broadcast direct seeding show fairly good results. 
At all events, under the proper conditions, some of our 
tree species can be successfully regenerated by this 
method, except for large seeds like those of the hickories, 
the walnuts and the oaks. For these it would possibly 
be better for the woodlot owner to practice planting of 
seedlings. 

Choice of method. — About the first question that arises 
when the regeneration of the woodlot is considered is 
what method to use, whether seeding or planting, or a 
combination of the two. This can be determined only by 
carefully considering the situation and the conditions. 
Even when conditions are favorable for seeding, it is so diffi- 
cult to secure seed of good quality at reasonable cost, 



104 The Farm Woodlot 

that it might be more economical to resort to planting. 
Three or four years might be gained by planting instead 
of seeding, and where time is considered, planting would 
again be advisable. Small treeless areas that are to be 
given over to tree growing had better be planted rather 
than seeded. If the woodlot has a crop of mature trees 
ready for removing, and a new crop of trees of the same 
kind is desirable, then it is a matter of replacing the old 
crop. 

Since, however, it is very seldom that a piece of wood- 
land has all its trees fit for cutting at the same time, and 
consequently removed at the same time, it becomes a 
problem of filling in open places in which trees have 
been taken out rather than to produce an entire new crop. 
Where the entire crop is removed, it would be better to 
plant seedlings at once in order to prevent a crop of brush 
and weeds from choking out seedlings planted later. On 
the other hand, if a cut-over area is practically clean, the 
soil might be prepared by dragging or harrowing and 
small seeds be sown broadcast. Large seed, such as the 
oaks and hickories, should be planted in furrows or in 
holes made by a stick, without preparing the soil. In 
either case the crop of brush and weeds that quickly 
springs up after a piece of woodland is cut over must be 
considered in producing a new crop of trees. The nature 
of this brush and weed crop must be understood before 
either seeding or planting can be determined intelligently. 

Direct seeding may be either broadcast or partial. 
Broadcast seeding implies a sowing of any area in much 
the same way as wheat or oats is sown by hand in the 
field. Partial seeding implies the seeding of small areas 



Practical Sylviculture 105 

or spots within the woodland, wherever trees have been 
removed and open places occur. The advantages and 
disadvantages of these methods will be taken up separately. 

Broadcast seeding. — This method, up to the present 
time, is expensive and not altogether certain. It is best 
practiced with small seeds — as the conifers, — and is best 
employed directly after the forest is cut over while the 
soil is still broken and the ground-cover in good condition 
for the seed. The best time for broadcast seeding in 
the woodlot is late winter or early spring. Early spring 
seeding, either on top of the snow or as the snow is 
melting, seems to give best results. Fall seeding has 
the disadvantage of exposing the seed during the winter 
to birds and rodents, particularly to squirrels, which will 
destroy most or all of it. 

Broadcast seeding may also be employed directly after 
a forest fire and before brush and weeds spring up. 
The quantity of seed to be used under this method is 
best determined after studying the conditions. Also 
the quality of the seed must be taken into considera- 
tion, as well as such hazards as erosion, washing away of 
seed and the destruction of seed by rodents and birds, as 
well as the amount of money to be expended. Consider 
white pine as an example. This tree has about 28,000 
seeds to the pound ; sown broadcast on one acre would 
equal about two seeds to each three square feet, ii evenly 
distributed. Three pounds to the acre would then equal 
about two seeds to the square foot, which ought to be 
sufficient with seed of average quality sown on well-pre- 
pared forest soil, especially since seedlings three years old 
should not stand closer than six by six feet. 



106 The Farm Woodlot 

Seed-spots. — Seeding in spots is usually more satis- 
factory than broadcast seeding. The method is appli- 
cable to a -variety of conditions and has a number of dis- 
tinct advantages. The operation of establishing a seed- 
spot consists of clearing with a mattock or hoe a small 
area, about a foot square, of all sod or leaf litter, digging 
up the soil to a depth of a few inches, smoothing the 
spot, and planting the seed in this prepared ground. 
Small seeds like those of the pines, birches and elms are 
very successfully handled in this way. It is customary 
to put many more seeds in each spot than can grow to 
tree size. For example, in seeding white pine by this 
method, about twenty or thirty seeds to each spot result 
in averaging about three seedlings to each when three 
years old. Some of the spots will result in total failure, 
while others will have too many seedlings. By transplant- 
ing from the overcrowded spots to the vacant ones, an 
even stand can be secured. Seed-spots are usually placed 
close enough to one another to allow but one tree to the 
spot when grown to pole size. Seed-spots spaced six by six 
feet will eventually produce the same results as if seedlings 
had been planted with the same spacing. This method 
has distinct advantages over broadcast seeding. First, 
there is a marked saving of seed, since only about one- 
eighth or one-tenth as much seed is required. Second, 
the seed is placed in carefully prepared soil. Third, 
the spots can be selected so that no seed is wasted on 
barren locations. Seed-spots are particularly applicable 
in brushy areas ; also where there is a heavy sod, and for 
planting underneath other trees. 



Practical Sylviculture 107 

Collecting and storing seeds 

In every woodlot such trees as the oaks, ashes, maples 
are always desirable, and these trees, particularly, are the 
ones that it is wise to renew as fast as the old ones are 
removed. In renewing the woodlot under such conditions, 
it seems best to secure seed from the trees themselves, for 
seed-bearing trees may be found in any woodlot. Con- 
ditions may be such that the seed falling from the trees 
will spring up and produce sufficient natural reproduc- 
tion so as not to necessitate any artificial aid. However, 
just the opposite is usually the case. Consequently, it is 
a wise precaution to collect seed from such species as it 
is desired to perpetuate and to plant them directly, either 
in the woodlot or in the farm nursery. 

Time of collecting. — Among the hardwood trees, the 
time of ripening of seed varies from spring until fall ; 
consequently it is necessary to know at what time the 
trees fruit in order to collect good, fresh, vital seed. 
The following table (page 108) states briefly the time of 
ripening, the time for collecting, the time for planting, 
of the chief s^eds produced in the farm woodlot. 

It will be noticed that seeds which ripen in the spring 
and early summer grow the same season. This must be 
taken into account when planting seeds of this kind. The 
elms are a good example of this. Seeds that mature in 
the fall pass the winter on the ground and grow the follow- 
ing spring. The oaks are a good example of this kind. 
It is, consequently, a comparatively easy matter to grow 
seedlings from spring and early summer seeds, since they 
ripen at a time when the soil and growing conditions are 



108 



The Farm Woodlot 















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Practical Sylviculture 109 

right for immediate growing. They need no special care 
and preparation before planting, but must be planted 
very soon after coming from the trees. It will also be 
noticed that the willows and poplars are grown from cut- 
tings rather than from seed. However, they may be grown 
from seed by scattering branches containing the seed 
capsules on moist soil just as the capsules are opening. 
This is rarely practiced, since they are so readily grown 
from cuttings. 

Occasionally during a long wet fall some autumn- 
ripening seeds may germinate before spring. In the 
woodlot, providing mice and squirrels are not numerous, 
seeds of this kind may be left on the ground until spring. 
Seeds ripening in the fall that are collected for spring 
planting must be kept under conditions as nearly approach- 
ing the natural conditions under the tree as is possible. 
It is a safe rule that all such seeds as acorns, chestnuts 
and walnuts must be kept moist until planting time, 
while such seeds as the pines and spruces may be kept air 
dry. 

Seeds from coniferous trees are always collected in the 
cones. Seed trees should be located during midsummer by 
the presence of full-grown cones and then frequently 
examined as to the ripeness of the seed. This may be done 
by obtaining a green cone and cutting it longitudinally so 
as to expose the seed for examination. As a rule, the seed 
in the cones is ripe, while on the outside the cones still ap- 
pear green. As soon as the seeds are plump and fleshy and 
brown on the outside, the cones must be collected. They 
may be picked off the branches and placed in bags. They 
are then thoroughly dried by spreading out on screens in 



no The Farm Woodlot 

the sunshine, or by artificial heat. This drying causes the 
cone-scales to separate and the seeds may then readily be 
shaken out. After all the seed has been obtained from the 
cones, the wings should be rubbed off and the seed sepa- 
rated by fanning. This seed is then best kept over 
winter in its natural dry state. On the farm it is very 
well kept by placing in a bag and suspending from a rafter 
or a joist in some out-building safe from mice, and where 
the inside temperature is the same as outside. Seeds 
kept this way are ready for planting the following spring, 
either in the seed-bed or in the woodlot. 

Storing seeds over winter. — Seeds of the conifers are 
kept over winter as described above. Also seeds of the 
birches, the sugar maple and the bass wood may be kept 
in the same way, but they are likely to lose a consider- 
able percentage of their vitality. Heavy seeds like 
acorns and chestnuts must be kept moist, and this is 
accomplished best by stratifying in moist sand. For 
the woodlot owner, the process of stratifying is very 
simple, since the variety and the amount of seed is usually 
small. 

Stratifying consists of alternating thin layers of seed 
with layers of moist sand in a box or pit so that all the 
seeds may remain moist. For small quantities this is 
best done in a box. Place a layer of wet sand a few inches 
thick in the bottom of the box, then a similar layer of seed, 
followed by another of sand and a layer of seed, and so on 
until all are stratified. Small seeds that may become 
badly mixed with wet sand are better tied into loose 
packages made of cheesecloth, or any thin cloth, and these 
packages then packed in sand. This keeps the small seeds 



Practical Sylviculture 111 

clean and prevents the sand from becoming mixed with 
them. In this way any small seeds like the birch may be 
kept perfectly fresh and clean. The box containing the 
seed must then be buried one or two feet in the ground 
in a well-drained, moist place. In stratifying seeds, 
it is best to imitate natural conditions as nearly as possi- 
ble. Large quantities may be stratified in a pit instead 
of in a box. 

Planting seed in the nursery and in the woodlot. — Seeds 
ripening in the spring and early summer may be sown in 
the nursery at once, or may be sown directly in the wood- 
lot. It is well to keep in mind at all times the fact that 
trees that p'roduce very tender and delicate seedlings, 
until they become three or four years old, had better be 
grown in the nursery for a few years, while sturdy, stocky 
seedlings with deep roots had best be planted in the wood- 
lot at once. Seeds of trees that early in life form a long 
tap-root should be planted in the woodlot directly, since 
the difficulty and the expense of planting seedlings of this 
kind becomes too great and the loss of seedlings is likely to 
result. 

It follows then that seeds of the pines, spruces, and the 
like, and in some cases the elm, the silver and the red 
maple should be sown in the nursery and when large enough 
planted in the woodlot. Seeds of the oak, walnut, beech, 
chestnut and hickory, producing a sturdy seedling, may be 
placed directly in the woodlot by planting stratified seeds. 
Planting must be done in the early spring as soon as the 
ground is clear of frost. 

The woodlot owner can readily decide whether it is 
advisable to collect the seed in his own woodlot, or in a 



112 The Farm Woodlot 

neighboring one, and grow his own planting stock, or buy 
directly from a reputable nurseryman. There is a con- 
siderable saving of time by purchasing planting stock. 
From one to four years can be gained in the growth of 
the trees by doing this. It also may not be necessary or 
advantageous for the woodlot owner to grow his own 
planting stock. When nursery stock is purchased, the 
woodlot owner should engage from a reliable nurseryman 
the right kind of stock the fall previous to the time of 
planting so as to be sure to have the material on hand at 
the proper time. When it is desirable to establish a 
small farm nursery and to grow planting stock, the wood- 
lot owner will find it very instructive and highly satis- 
factory to do so. The following instructions will serve as 
a guide in establishing and caring for a small nursery to 
supply planting material for the average woodlot. 

THE FARM NURSERY 

Most woodlots have coniferous and broadleaf trees. 
The trees in these two groups differ considerably in their 
hardiness and in their rate of growth during the first two 
or three years. This difference calls for varied methods 
in nursery practice. Pines, spruces, and the like, require 
partial shade during the first and sometimes the second 
season. Oaks, elms, maples, and so on, will grow without 
shade from the start. Each of these groups will be treated 
separately. 

Growing coniferous seedlings 

Nursery site. — A convenient location should be selected 
in which the soil is a moderately fertile, sandy loam, free 



Practical Sylviculture 113 

from weeds and stones and well drained. A nursery- 
location in which the soil is poor may readily be made 
suitable by improving the soil and preparing as for a 
garden. The average sized farm-woodlot does not call 
for a great many seedlings at any one time, so that when 
only a few thousand seedlings are required, a part of the 
vegetable garden may oftentimes be set aside for this 
purpose. When this is not practicable, the site should be 
chosen in which there is no danger of disturbance from 
the farm stock, from rabbits and mice, and as far from bird 
attractions as possible. Usually water is necessary at 
some time of the growing season, so that the water supply 
should be near at hand in case of severe and prolonged 
dry weather. 

Preparing the seed-beds. — There need be no difference 
whatever in the preparation of the soil for growing seed- 
lings from that of an onion or a lettuce bed. When it is 
not practicable to plow the ground, it may be spaded and 
thoroughly raked and the soil pulverized and reduced to a 
smooth surface. The most satisfactory width for seed- 
beds is four feet. This enables one to reach readily all 
parts of the bed for weeding and transplanting purposes 
and also to use ordinary building lath for shade screens. 
The seed-beds may be any length. When several beds 
are made up side by side, there should be a path two feet 
wide between them, and if the ground is sloping, the beds 
should run at right angles to the slope. If the soil is rich 
and inclined to be moist, the beds should be raised about 
four or more inches above this path. On dry or sandy 
soil, the beds should be on the same level as the path. 
The laying-out of the seed-beds may be such as to suit 



114 



The Farm Woodlot 



any special requirement on any location in which it is 
desirable and practicable to grow seedlings. 

Planting the seed. — Coniferous seed may be sown either 
broadcast or in drills. Each method has its advantages. 
In case the seeds are sown in drills, these drills should run 
across the beds and about four inches apart. Double 




Fig. 29. — Sowing evergreen seed-beds. Note supports tor shade frames. 



drills are sometimes advised, i.e. two rows about an inch 
apart with a six-inch space between the double drills. 
Sowing in this manner facilitates weeding, since an ordi- 
nary hand-weeder can be used. Broadcast seeding makes 
it necessary to pick the weeds with the fingers, but in a 
short time the seedlings will fairly well crowd out the weeds. 
Sowing seed in drills may be carried on as follows : A wide 
board four feet long, having fastened on one side small, 
three-sided strips the required distance apart, is a con- 



Practical Sylviculture 115 

venient implement for marking the drills by pressing this 
board, strips down, on the top of the bed. Handles fastened 
to the top of the board facilitate its use, since it may be 
handled easier. The seeds are sown in the marks of these 
three-cornered strips, after which they are lightly covered. 
In sowing seed broadcast, it is best, after the required 
amount is decided upon, to mark off the bed in small 
areas about a foot square, either by stretching strings, or 
by marking it lightly with a stick and sowing one square at 
a time. For example, if a certain amount of seed is to 
be sown on twenty-four such squares, then one-twenty- 
fourth of the seed should be taken and sown in one square 
and so on until all are sown. This is merely an aid to an 
■ even distribution of the seed. The depth to which a seed 
should be planted depends somewhat on the size. As a 
general rule, they should not be covered any deeper than 
twice their own thickness. It is a very easy matter to 
plant the seeds too deep, which will cause them to germi- 
nate unevenly. After the seed is sown, it is best covered 
by sifting fine earth upon it with a hand sieve until all is 
covered, then pressed down or lightly rolled so as to firm 
the seed in the soil. If the ground is dry, it may then be 
lightly sprinkled. (Fig. 30.) 

How much seed to use. — The quantity of seed required 
depends on the kind and the amount that will grow. It 
is always best to test the seed by cutting a certain number 
and examining them. In this way a certain percentage of 
good and bad can be established. One ounce of good white- 
pine seed will be sufficient for about thirty linear feet of 
drills, while smaller seed like the Norway spruce will sow 
about seventy feet of drill. In broadcast seeding, about 



116 



The Farm Woodlot 



two and a half or three seeds, on the average, to the square 
inch should be sown. For white pine, this would require 

one pound for 60 to 
80 square feet, or a 
bed 4 feet wide and 
from 15 to 20 feet 
long. 

Protecting the seed 
in the seed-bed. — In 
locations in which 
mice, squirrels and 
birds are very nu- 
merous, it is neces- 
sary carefully to pro- 
tect seed in the 
beds. Squirrels that 
burrow in the ground 
are particularly 
troublesome and it 
is necessary, in order 
to keep them out, to 
inclose the beds with 
wire netting not 
larger than a half- 
inch mesh, allowing 
the netting to ex- 
tend downward 
eight or ten inches below the surface of the ground. It 
is also necessary to cover the beds over the top with the 
same style of netting. The top netting may be removed 
as soon as the seedlings are a few weeks old. Squirrels 




Fig. 30. — Sprinkling sand on a newly sown 
seed-bed. 



Practical Sylviculture 117 

and mice do very little damage after the seeds have come 
up, but birds, particularly the seed-eating sparrows, such 
as the field and song sparrow, will eat the seeds and will 
also destroy the tender seedlings, while they still retain 
the seed coat on the cotyledons. It is customary to coat 
seeds of this kind with red lead mixed in water. This 
does not injure the seed, but destroys their attractiveness 
for birds and squirrels. As soon as the seed is sown, the 
bed should be sprinkled lightly and then covered with 
a light mulch. This is best done by spreading burlap, or 
a strip of muslin, on the seed-bed and upon this placing 
a mulch of leaves, or any material that will keep the 
bed from drying out. Just as soon as the seedlings 
appear above the surface, this mulch must be removed 
so as to give them light and air. 

Protecting the seedlings. — During the first three or four 
weeks, coniferous seedlings are very subject during damp 
weather to a disease known as "damping off," which in a 
very short time will cause them to wilt and die. This 
usually can be prevented by regulating the moisture and 
by thoroughly ventilating the beds after heavy rains and 
during humid weather. Partial shade must be provided. 
This is best and most economically done by making shade 
screens four feet square from ordinary building lath. 
These screens are so made as to produce half shade. Two 
strips of lath are used as cross-pieces and upon them the 
lath are nailed with spaces equal to their own width 
between them. These lath screens are then placed on a 
frame by driving stakes at intervals around the edge of 
the bed and about 18 inches out of the ground, joined by 
board strips upon which these lath screens are supported. 



118 The Farm Woodlot 

The screens must be kept on during the greater part of 
the first season, particularly during warm days, but may 
be removed for a short time morning and evening and on 
cloudy days. In the second year these shade screens 
usually are not required. Weeds must be carefully picked 
out and the beds kept clean. In dry weather the 
seedlings must be sprinkled, preferably in the evening. 

Preparation for winter. — Late in the fall, usually after 
the ground is frozen and several inches of snow have 
fallen, the seedlings should be mulched. The beds con- 
taining the seedlings should be covered with a layer of 
leaves, straw or hay, upon which the lath should be placed 
to prevent the wind from removing the mulch. This 
mulch should remain until the following spring when all 
danger from frost is past, and should be removed just 
before growth begins. A good mulch will prevent alter- 
nate freezing and thawing and heaving out of the seedlings. 

Transplanting. — Seedlings of the eastern conifers are 
small and rather delicate, as a rule, in the first and some- 
times in the second year. In the woodlot in which condi- 
tions are trying, very young and tender seedlings involve 
a risk in planting, so that better results are secured by 
using transplanted seedlings. One-year-old seedlings may 
be taken out of the seed-bed, planted in another bed 
in rows about four inches apart and about two inches 
apart in the row. Transplanting has the advantage of 
improving the root system, making it more compact and 
fibrous. In case one transplanting is insufficient, the 
seedlings may be twice transplanted, or in exceptional 
cases three times. Seedlings may be transplanted at the 
beginning of the second season when they are one year 



Practical Sylviculture 119 

old, or at the beginning of the third season when they are two 
years old. In case one-year-old seedlings are transplanted, 
it usually is necessary to provide them with partial shade 
for at least part of the summer. Two-year-old seedlings 
will not require shade. Transplanting adds to the 
cost of the seedlings, and for average conditions two-year- 
old seedlings untransplanted furnish the most desirable 
planting stock. Transplanting must be done in the early 
spring before growth begins. The woodlot owner may use 
transplant-beds made up similar to seed-beds, and the 
seedlings planted as noted above. Planting may be done 
in rows at such distances apart as is most convenient for 
cultivation, depending on whether cultivation is by hand or 
with a cultivator. For a small number of seedlings, a 
regular four-foot bed with close planting is most economical. 
In transplanting operations, it is most imperative that the 
roots of the seedlings are kept moist at all times, since a 
small amount of drying will prove fatal. Transplanting 
operations are best practiced in cloudy days and even 
in misty or rainy days, providing the soil is not too wet. 
In sunny or windy weather, the roots must be covered with 
wet moss or, burlap as soon as taken from the ground. 
Any other material that will protect them from the air 
and sunshine and keep them moist may be used. They 
must be kept in this condition until they are placed in the 
transplant beds. 

Growing broadleaf seedlings in the farm nursery 

Since the seedlings of the broadleaf trees are very 
hardy and rapid growing, as a rule, the seeds may be 
planted directly in nursery rows in well-prepared ground. 



120 The Farm Woodlot 

These rows may be as far apart as is desirable, depending 
on the method of weeding and cultivation which it is 
expected to use. No shade-frames are necessary, but it 
may be advisable to locate the nursery in the protection of 
large trees or farm buildings. 

Broadleaf tree seeds. — Most broadleaf tree seeds, if 
stratified during the winter, will be in excellent condition 
for germination the following spring, and they should be 
planted as soon as the ground is free from frost and dry 
enough for working. Very hard-shell seeds, such as the 
black and honey locust, frequently remain in the ground 
until the beginning of the second season before they 
grow. This tardiness in growing can be remedied by 
soaking the seeds in hot water. Immerse the seeds in a 
quantity of water heated to 180° F. and allow them to cool 
and remain for a day or two. If the seeds still seem very 
hard and show little benefit, they should receive a second 
treatment. The water must not be too hot, and a safe 
rule to follow is to heat it to the point at which it is too hot 
for the naked hand. Seed thus treated must be planted 
immediately in order that the seed may remain moist, 
since drying out would very readily kill it. Seeds that 
have been stratified over winter must be planted as soon 
as removed from the moist sand. Seeds maturing in 
early summer, like the elms, must be planted as soon as 
collected. 

Planting the seeds. — As mentioned above, it is best to 
plant the seeds of broadleaf trees in long rows. When 
only a few hundred are gro^vn, it is better to place the 
rows about a foot apart and depend on hand cultiva- 
tion ; however, they may be grown along with a field crop 



Practical Sylviculture 121 

and cultivated with a horse cultivator. As a rule, however, 
the tree seeds must be planted earlier than the agricul- 
tural crops, so that it is better to use a separate location. 
The seeds should be planted in much the same manner as 
peas or beans, placing the seed in the ground to a depth of 
about twice its own thickness. If all the seeds are good, 
seeds like those of the oaks should be placed about one 
or two inches apart in a row. Elm, maple, basswood, and 
so on, should be sown three or four deep, since a consider- 
able number of such seeds will not grow. Water must be 
available in case of dry seasons. Germination may be 
hastened and result more evenly if a straw or leaf mulch is 
applied as soon as the seeds are planted. Careful culti- 
vation and the keeping out of all weeds is necessary. 

Transplanting. — ^ As a rule, hardwood seedlings are 
large enough to plant into the permanent site when one 
year old, but when it is desirable to keep them for another 
year or two in the nursery, they should be transplanted in 
rows wide enough to admit of horse cultivation. Trans- 
planting operations depend to some extent on the nature of 
the root system. Many broadleaf trees produce heavy 
tap-roots, even during the first year. When these trees 
are left in the nursery without transplanting, this root 
becomes so large that the transplanting operation be- 
comes a difficult as well as an expensive one. Seedlings 
of this kind, when transplanted in the nursery, should have 
the roots well pruned, since this will congest the root 
system and make it more fibrous. While these seedlings 
are very young, alternate freezing and thawing during the 
fall and winter may heave them out of the earth, so that 
for the first year or two it is advisable to use a winter 



122 The Farm Woodlot 

mulch, consisting of straw or leaves applied as soon as the 
ground is frozen, and preferably on top of a few inches of 
snow. This mulch prevents alternate thawing and- 
freezing and should be removed in the spring as soon as 
freezing conditions are over. 

Expenses. — The cost of seedlings grown in the farm 
nursery usually can be made very insignificant, since the 
work can be done at odd times in the evening or morning, 
at no time occupying more than a few hours, so that along 
with the regular farm work the care for a small nursery 
would scarcely be noticed. On the average farm there is 
usually spare time and labor that can be used for such 
purposes. The equipment, in case wire netting is neces- 
sary, together with lath, stakes, and so on, need cost but 
very little. Seed, whether collected or purchased, in the 
case of conifers will range from 75^ to $3 a pound; 
in case of hardwoods or broadleaf trees from 10^ to $1 
a pound. In case planting stock is purchased, one-year- 
old coniferous seedlings may be obtained for about SI a 
thousand. Transplanting always increases the cost, and, 
as a rule, transplants cost about twice as much as seedlings. 
The cost of broadleaf seedlings will vary with the species 
and the size from about 50^ to $2 a hundred. From 
the standpoint of economy, it is far more economical to 
establish a small nursery and to grow planting material, 
except when labor must be hired to carry on the work. 
In the latter case, it would be better to purchase planting 
stock from a reliable nursery. 



Practical Sylviculture 



123 



SPRING OPERATIONS IN THE FARM NURSERY 

When the seedhngs in the farm nursery are old enough 
to be planted into the permanent site, they must be taken 
from the seed-beds, or nursery rows, in the early spring as 
soon as the frost is out of the ground and before the growth 




Fig. 31. — Lifting and counting seedlings in nursery. 

is started. Pine or any small spruce seedlings are best 
lifted from the beds with a spade, since the spade can be 
forced into the ground well below the roots, lifting them 
out entire. They must then be carefully separated from 
the soil, leaving the roots clean. They are sorted into 
sizes — usually two — tied in bundles of fifty or a hundred 



124 



The Farm Woodlot 



and packed into a basket or box containing wet sand, moss, 
burlap or some similar substance. (Fig. 31.) 

In case the planting is done sometime after the seed- 
lings are taken from the seed-beds, these bundles of seed- 



aat^', • ,■ ^'.j.-,^^, y. 



f^-^if^. 



Fig. 32. — Seedlings heeled-in awaiting planting or shipment. 



lings should be carefully heeled-in. The process of heeling- 
in consists of planting the bundles of seedlings in a solid 
row in a trench deep enough to receive the bundles up to 
where the leaves begin, packing the bundles in very firmly 
and tramping the soil around them with the heel so as to 



Practical Sylviculture 125 

close up all air spaces. (Figs. 32-33.) Heeling-in should 
be done preferably in a shaded and protected place. 
During an early spring when seedlings start to grow 
before it is convenient to plant them, their growth rnay 
be retarded by lifting and heeling them in. When plant- 




FiG. 33. — Heeling-in evergreen seedlings. 

ing follows immediately after the lifting of the seedlings, 
they should be taken from the nursery to the planting 
site, packed in boxes or pails so as to remain always 
moist. When the planting takes place after the seed- 
lings have been heeled-in, they should be removed from 
the trench as fast as needed, packed and transferred to 
the planting site as before. Great caution should be 
exercised to keep the roots wet at all times. 



126 The Farm Woodlot 

Broadleaf seedlings are not so delicate, and although it 
is necessary to use care in exposing the roots, a small 
amount of drying usually does not seriously injure them. 
They may be taken to the planting site in bundles with the 
roots wrapped in burlap, or anything that will keep them 
moist. When planting stock purchased from a nursery 
arrives at a time inconvenient for immediate planting, 
then the seedlings should be removed from the package 
in which they were shipped and carefully heeled-in 
until planting time. 

Field planting of farm nursery stock. Fig. 34 

Planting in the field demands a variety of methods, 
the simplest being the planting of a clear area or field. 
Usually there are only parts of the woodlot, small open 
areas and spaces between the trees, in which it is desirable 
to plant. When this is the case, no regular system can or 
need be followed out. The seedlings may be set at random, 
so long as they are spaced about six feet from one another 
and placed where they are certain to have an opportunity 
to grow. In an open area, lines of stakes should be set, 
three or four in a row, to serve as a guide for a planting 
crew. In most cases, it is sufficient to have two men in a 
crew, one man to carry the seedlings in a pail or basket 
with some wet material covered over the roots, and to 
plant the seedlings ; the other man to be provided with 
a mattock or grub hoe with which to dig a suitable hole. 
Two men working together can carry on the work very 
rapidly and efficiently. As soon as the hole is dug, the 
planting man takes a seedling from the pail or basket, 
plants it immediately in the fresh earth, setting the seed- 



Practical Sylviculture 127 

ling a little deeper than it stood in the seed-bed, spreading 
the roots as much as possible, sprinkling over them soft, 
clean earth, pressing it down firmly with the hand, filling 
up the entire opening and then firming thoroughly with 
the heel. With a little practice this operation need 
require less than a minute's time. When the soil is 




Fig. 34. — Planting evergreen seedlings under shade of birches. 

clear from stones and roots, one stroke of the mattock will 
open a large enough hole to receive a two-year-old seedling. 
By pulling slightly on the handle of the mattock, the open- 
ing will be made large enough to receive the roots of a 
seedling before the mattock is removed. When the 
mattock is taken away, the seedling is in its place and a 
little thorough tamping with the heel will firm the earth 
sufficiently. 

The most desirable spacing for all woodlot purposes 



128 The Farm Woodlot 

is about 6X6 feet. As soon as one seedling has been 
planted, the man with the mattock advances in the line 
of the stakes two full paces, or what to him would be six 
feet, planting another seedling and progressing in this 
manner until the end of the line is reached. When more 
than one planting crew, for instance five or six, are working 
at the same time, the crew following the staked-out line 
should always be one space ahead of the crew on the next 
line. The crew on the second line should be one space 
ahead of the crew on the third line, so that the front pre- 
sented by the planting crew's progress is across the field in 
a diagonal line, or diagonally abreast. Only one line of 
stakes is necessary for the first crew to follow. The 
other crews take their distance six feet ahead in line and 
six feet at right angles from the seedling planted im- 
mediately ahead of them in the opposite row. It is 
desirable, when convenient, to do planting of this kind 
during cloudy weather, since not so much care is necessary 
in protecting the seedlings. A good supply of wet moss 
or burlap, or whatever is most convenient to use, should 
be on hand at the planting site so that at no time may the 
seedlings in the pail or basket become dry. 

Broadleaf seedlings may be planted in the same manner, 
but as a rule, since they are larger and have longer roots, 
it requires more care in setting them. When it is prac- 
ticable, furrows six feet apart may be thrown and the 
seedlings planted in the bottom of the furrow, using the 
earth turned out by the plow for covering the roots. 
Two men, after some practice, should plant from 1200- 
1600 coniferous seedlings in a day, and, in the case of the 
hardwood seedlings, from half to three-quarters as many, 



Practical Sylviculture 129 

since more time is required for digging and setting the 
plants. Spacing 6X6 feet requires 1210 trees to the 
acre, so that two men working together should plant from 
three-quarters of an acre to one acre of broadleaf seedlings 
and from one to approximately one and one-half acres of 
conifers. The cost of planting depends on the skill of the 
planters, and on local wages. When workmen can be 
obtained for $2 a day, coniferous planting should not 
cost more than $3 or $4 to the acre, while broadleaf 
planting will cost proportionately more. 

Treatment after planting in the farm nursery 

It is always advisable to care for a plantation until 
the trees have grown to such a size that they may take 
care of themselves. Small seedlings may be choked by a 
rank growth of grass, weeds and brush. Farm stock, 
particularly cattle, must be kept out, since they will nip 
off the tops of the seedlings as well as destroy many of 
them by trampling. It is always advisable to exclude all 
stock from the permanent woodlot and particularly from 
plantations. In a short time a few cattle may destroy an 
entire plantation, thus losing several years of work and 
effort. It may be advisable, when possible, to cultivate 
the plantation with a horse cultivator for a few years to 
keep down weeds and grasses, and as soon as the trees 
become large enough to crowd each other and interfere 
with their growth, thinnings should be carried on. Instruc- 
tions for thinning and improvement work will be given 
under a separate chapter. 



130 The Farm Woodlot 

WOODLOT PLANTATIONS IN MIXTURE 

When it becomes necessary to establish a new woodlot 
by planting, then it may be desirable to plant two or 
more species in mixture. A clear distinction must 
be made between woodlot plantations and wind- 
break plantations. The former are made primarily for 
the production of fuel and farm timber rather than for 
protection, and species are selected that meet these require- 
ments. For windbreak plantations, the prime object is 
to afford an effective barrier against the force of the wind, 
and trees are selected with reference to their vigor, size, 
density of crown and immunity from climatic injuries 
rather than to the quantity and quality of wood produced. 
It sometimes is convenient to have the woodlot serve as a 
windbreak for the farmstead, but as a rule profitable wood- 
lot species are poor windbreak trees. 

Mixtures suitable for general prairie planting where con- 
ditions vary from sub-arid to river-bottom lands 

For planting a woodlot the following mixtures are 
suggested ks useful ones : 

I. Green ash and hackberry 4X4 feet, the species 
alternating in rows. Hackberry will crowd the ash, 
causing it to produce good height growth. At the same 
time it will furnish some fuel from the thinnings. The 
hackberry should be removed as soon as it begins to 
interfere and cause any injury to the ash, leaving the ash 
spaced regularly 8X8 feet. 

II. Green ash and white elm 6X6 feet in equal mixture 
alternating in rows. The elm forces the ash into well- 



Practical Sylviculture 131 

formed trees and should be removed as soon as the stand 
becomes too dense, yielding considerable fuel. This 
mixture is suitable to soil slightly better than No. I. 

III. Burr oak and hackberry 4X4 feet. These species 
are very hardy, but of slow growth. Close planting is ad- 
vised, to shade the ground as soon as possible. When 
crowding begins, thinning should commence with the hack- 
berry, leaving the oak for the final crop. This mixture is 
suitable for very poor, comparatively dry soil. 

IV. White elm and black locust 6X6 feet. The 
locust grows more rapidly than the elm and can be ex- 
pected to furnish posts and fuel in a comparatively short 
time. The elm will shade the ground, keep out grasses 
and maintain fairly good conditions. Thinning may be 
made in both the elm and the locust. 

V. Boxelder and cottonwood in equal mixture 4X4 
feet. The boxelder is slower in growth than the cotton- 
wood and forms an understory and shade for the ground. 
The cottonwood grows rapidly in height and produces 
timber. Thinning should be made in the boxelder until 
it is all removed, since in itself it is of little value, but is 
used merely to aid the cottonwood. This mixture is 
adapted to general prairie planting where soil moisture 
may be reached readily by the roots. The trees in this 
mixture are very hardy and can be counted on to endure 
the severe colds in the northern prairies. 

The following mixtures are suitable for general planting 
in the Lake States, or anywhere in the general range 
of the white pine. 

I. Norway pine and jack pine in equal mixture 4X4 



132 The Farm Woodlot 

feet. Close spacing is required in order that the ground 
may be covered and the soil protected as early as possible. 
In thinning, the jack pine should be removed first, since 
it is shorter lived and of poorer quality than the Norway 
pine. Further thinning must be made in the Norway 
pine itself. This mixture is a good one for sandy ground 
in the Lake States. 

II. White pine and Norway spruce in equal proportion 
6X6 feet. The spruce will endure more shade than the 
pine and will serve as an understory forcing the pine 
upward, thus producing tall trees. Thinnings should 
begin with the spruce and later run into the pine. This 
mixture is well adapted in the general range of the white 
pine. 

III. Sugar maple and white pine in equal proportions 
6X6 feet. This mixture of conifer and broadleaf is one 
that has been very widely used with very good success 
and can be used anywhere the maple and the pine occur 
naturally. The maple is slow in growth, forms a dense 
shade and serves as an understory, shading the ground 
and maintaining good forest conditions. The pine is 
forced into good height growth. Thinnings may take 
place both in the pine and the maple and when the pine 
is finally removed, a second crop of maple may be cut in a 
comparatively short time. 

IV. Norway spruce and European larch in equal mix- 
tures 6X6 feet. The larch growing more rapidly than 
the spruce will form the overstory while the spruce forms 
the understory and shades the ground. This mixture is 
very suitable for poor, sandy soil in the Northeast. 

V. Chestnut and white pine 6X6 feet in equal propor- 



Practical Sylviculture 133 

tions. The chestnut must be removed first, since it 
grows more rapidly than the pine and will produce pole 
and post material, while the pine is left for the final crop. 
This mixture is a valuable one in the general range of the 
chestnut. 

VI. White ash and red oak 6X6 feet in equal mixtures. 
These two species are very nearly equal in their rate of 
growth and thinning may include both species. A well- 
kept woodlot of this mixture can be depended on to furnish 
saw timber from both oak and ash. This mixture is 
adapted to moderately fertile bottom lands. 

VII. Sugar maple and chestnut in equal mixture 6X6 
feet. The chestnut growing more rapidly than the maple 
forms the overstory, while the maple shades the ground and 
forms the understory. Thinnings are made in both the 
chestnut and the maple. The chestnut is removed first, 
leaving the maple for the final crop. This mixture can be 
used in the northeastern states. 



CHAPTER VI 

PRACTICAL SYLVICULTURE — WORK IN THE 
WOOD LOT 

When the woodlot is a piece of native woodland or a 
planted grove, it should have the same careful attention, 
after its kind, as is given a crop of grain. To be sure, 
neither the same amount nor the same intensity of atten- 
tion is required, but the farm woodlot ought to be an 
object of sufficient interest and pride to receive such atten- 
tion and treatment as it needs. It is a mistaken notion 
that a tree once started will take care of itself and under 
any circumstances produce the best it is capable of. It 
would be just as fair to expect a stalk of corn uncared for 
to grow to successful maturity. The farmer takes it for 
granted that, in order to grow a crop of potatoes or corn, 
he must carry on a process of intelligent cultivation. He 
knows definitely that his crop of potatoes or corn will be 
very largely in proportion to the amount of labor he has 
expended in caring for it. While there is no question as 
to the necessity and value of cultivation and care in the 
growing of a field crop, it is usually considered unnecessary 
to aid the growing trees in the woodlot. It is generally 
assumed that nature's methods are the best and that 
labor expended in improving the woodlot is time wasted. 
This is no more true than that nature's methods are the 
best for the orchard or the garden. No orchardist would 

134 




Fig. 35. — Poorly stocked stand of hardwoods. 



136 The Farm Woodlot 

plant his trees and then have his attention end there. 
The woodlot, in order that it niay be of its utmost value, 
requires a certain amount of attention and intelligent 




Fig. 36. — A poorly kept woodlot. The trees are over-mature and de- 
teriorating. Reproduction and ground cover are wanting. 

treatment. Just as a field of corn needs weeding, so the 
woodlot needs weeding. To be sure, the weeds in a wood- 
lot are not like those in the field of corn, but instead are 
small, worthless trees occupying valuable space, utilizing 
the soil and interfering with the growth and development 



Practical Sylviculture 



137 



of good trees. Work carried on in the woodlot in caring 
for the crop of trees is known by the general term of thin- 
ning. Thinning 
may mean ac- 
tual removal of 
good trees 
when the stand 
is too thick, 
the removal of 
defective, poor 
and worthless 
trees or the re- 
moval of any- 
thing that 
tends to im- 
prove the tree 
growth. The 
practice of in- 
telligent thin- 
ning very 
quickly shows 
a marked effect 
on the develop- 
ment of the 
trees in a 
stand. In 
Europe during 
a period of 74 
years, the for- 
ests have yielded an increase in wood of 300 per cent, or 
from an annual growth of 20 cubic feet to the acre a year 




Fig. 37. — A good example of woodlot of the selec- 
tion type. Trees are of all ages, both conifers and 
hardwoods. 



138 The Farm Woodlot 

to that of 65 cubic feet to the acre a year. This increase 
in yield has been brought about almost entirely by a sys- 
tematic and intelligent process of thinning. 

The theory of thinning lies in the fact that a tree as a 
growing organism is governed in its rate of growth and 
perfection of development by the amount of light, mois- 
ture and soil fertility it secures. Light is the first and 
most important factor. A tree responds to light through 
its leaves just as an animal responds to air through its 
lungs. Leaves are the lungs of plants and it is through 
the leaves that most of the wood of a tree is formed. Wood 
is made up largely of carbon obtained from the air by the 
leaves in the presence of sunlight. It follows then that 
increased light produces more leaves, consequently a 
greater leaf surface, which results in a greater production of 
wood. A tree growing in dense shade cannot develop as 
fast as when given a large amount of light. It should be 
the purpose of every woodlot owner to produce wood as 
rapidly as possible. As soon as a stand of trees becomes 
crowded and the trees interfere with one another, some 
should be removed and a greater amount of light admitted 
to the remaining ones. The amount of light to admit at 
any one time is a matter for careful judgment, since height 
growth is best obtained in a close stand, and a crop of 
grass must not be allowed to come in and occupy the forest 
floor. 

To illustrate how largely wood is made up of carbon 
taken from the air by leaves in the presence of sunlight, 
let us take as an example a cigar and a piece of wood the 
same size ; burn the two and compare the amount of ash. 
The cigar is a product of the leaves of a plant, while the 



Practical Sylviculture 139 

wood is a part of the woody stem. The large amount of 
ash from the cigar shows the amount of fertiUty drawn 
from the soil. The comparatively small amount of ash 




Greatly in need of thinning. 



from the piece of wood indicates what the tree obtained 
from the soil and stored in the wood. Tree leaves contain 
about as much ash as tobacco leaves, but the tree returns 



140 The Farm Woodlot 

its leaves to the soil, while the tobacco leaves are har- 
vested. The agricultural crop utilizes the seed and 
leaves, while the forest crop utilizes the wood made largely 
of carbon from the air. It follows from this that crowding 
or shading, which deprives the tree of its necessary amount 
of sunlight and space in which to grow, reduces its leaf 
surface and consequently interferes with and checks the 
amount of wood produced. Thus thinnings tend to give 
the good trees more light and more available soil and 
moisture ; consequently there is an accelerated growth 
and development of better and larger trees. 

As an example, take a woodlot containing about 1200 
trees to the acre. This number of trees, if equally dis- 
tributed, would be spaced about 6X6 feet. Each tree 
then would have about 36 square feet in which to spread 
its branches. In a few years, side branches from the 
different trees will begin to interfere with and finally 
crowd one another. As this interference and crowding 
continue, the stronger trees outgrow and overtop the 
weaker ones, producing a crop of trees, some of which 
are poor and worthless, others fairly well developed. 
' Trees differ in rate of growth even in the same species 
and some are certain to outgrow others and overtop 
them. When this condition begins to show its effect on 
the trees, nature should be aided by removing the poor 
trees to make more room for the good ones. This should 
continue as long as the trees interfere with each other. 
When finally the trees are fifty or sixty years old, instead of 
1200 there probably would be only about 200 or 250 trees. 
Nature, if not interfered with, would eventually produce 
practically the same number of trees, many of poor quality 



Practical Sylviculture 141 

and small dimensions, and would require a great deal of 
time. During the early life of the trees in the woodlot, 
it is quite important that they crowd one another to some 
extent, since this tends to increase their height growth by 
forcing them upward, producing tall, straight trunks. 
As soon as a good height growth has been attained, then 
the ax should be used in opening the woodlot, letting in 
more light, giving the trees more room and encouraging 
greater growth in diameter. 

Carrying out thinning operations in a woodlot in which 
only one or two species of trees occur is quite a simple 
matter as compared to the average woodlot which con- 
tains a mixture of trees of different species and trees that 
differ in their soil, moisture and light requirements. In 
the average farm woodlot, thinning usually takes place 
only when some fuel or timber is needed about the farm. 
This usually is beneficial to a certain extent, but it is not 
sufficiently systematic to enable the trees to produce their 
maximum growth. The same system of thinning that is 
adaptable to' the native woodlot may not be adaptable 
to the planted grove, since the native woodlot contains a 
greater variety of trees and of various sizes, while the 
planted grove may contain but two or three kinds and 
usually of the same age and size. When a woodlot has 
been cut over, most of the hardwood species will sprout 
from the stump, producing great quantities of shoots, 
which if properly cared for will develop into valuable 
trees. The fact that these sprouts grow in great numbers 
calls for a still different system of thinning. It follows 
from this that the farmer must consider the kind of 
trees, the manner in which they were established, the 



142 The Farm Woodlot 

number of species and the soil and moisture, before he 
decides how, and to what extent, he is going to carry on 
his thinning operations. The wood that is removed during 
the thinning process may always be of use around the farm, 
particularly for fuel. It is very seldom that early thin- 




FiG. 39. — Evergreen plantation. Some of trees djdng from crowding. 

nings yield any revenue directly, since it may be necessary, 
particularly in sprout growth, to thin before the sprouts 
are large enough to be utilized. The value of early thin- 
nings shows itself in the improvement and the additional 
growth of the trees that are left in the woodlot. When the 
material removed is large enough for fuel, or for any 
other purpose, then the operation may pay for itself and 
may yield some revenue, but in forestry the profit from 



Practical Sylviculture 143 

thinnings is looked forward to in the final crop rather than 
in the wood that is removed during thinning operations. 

TIME OF THINNING 

It will be understood in this discussion that the term 
thinning is applied to any operation that tends to remove 
from the woodlot any undesirable material, either living or 
dead, at any time, or any desirable and valuable trees in 
overcrowded stands at such times as seem best for the 
woodlot. This definition of thinning is not the one 
adhered to strictly by the forester, but is used here in a 
broad and general sense. 

As to the time of thinning the woodlot, it is a difficult 
matter in a treatise of this kind to give anything other 
than general advice, since conditions are so variable. 

It is a good rule to commence thinning early in the life of 
trees, and this time is best indicated when there is a begin- 
ning of active crowding between individual trees. In the 
vigorous-growing natural stands or in the planted grove, 
this crowding usually begins at about twelve to eighteen 
years. At this time only such trees should be removed 
as interfere with one another or with other and better 
trees that will eventually be suppressed and stunted. 
Such a thinning should be light and the operator should 
look to the crown of each tree rather than to the number of 
trees on any particular area. The prime object is to 
give each tree crciwn space and yet to maintain a thinned 
but even canopy over the entire woodlot area. 

The woodlot owner doubtless will object to this kind of 
an operation, since the material removed cannot be 
expected to defray the incurred expense or to net any 



144 



The Farm Woodlot 



revenue. It is often the case that a farmer is able to 
spend some of his own time or the time of some of his farm 

hands in this 
kind of work to 
very good ad- 
vantage with- 
out any par- 
ticular sacrifice 
of the regular 
farm routine 
work. The op- 
erations may 
be carried on 
in the winter 
time or when 
there is a scar- 
city, for a short 
period of time, 
of the ordinary 
farm work. 
Under such cir- 
cumstances, 
thinning oper- 
ations cannot 
be considered 
expensive and 
the value of a 
future crop of 
timber should 
be considered 
Fig. 40. — Hardwood grove properly thinned. rather than re- 




Practical Sylviculture 



145 



turns from the immediate thinning. In woodlots of 
considerable area, such as are attached to some farms, 
there may be a local market for cordwood, and under such 
conditions later thinnings may prove financially profitable. 




Fig. 41. — Thinning in hardwood stand. 

as well as beneficial to the trees left in the woodlot. It is 
a good rule to thin lightly and often, so as at no time to 
expose the forest floor to a large amount of sunlight, which 
would encourage a growth of grass. 



146 The Farm Woodlot 

Later thinnings, following possibly ten or fifteen years 
later, usually pay for themselves and in some eases are 
profitable even when the woodlot owner can use the wood on 
his own farm. Thinnings made in a stand thirty or forty 
years old of the average species of our forest trees are 
made with a different object in view from that of the 
early thinnings. At this time most of the trees will have 
attained their principal height growth, and if allowed to 
remain unthinned will become tall and lanky. The 
chopper again must look to the crowns of the trees rather 
than to the number standing on the ground so as to give 
each tree an equal and sufficient amount of crown space. 
This admitting of more light enables each tree to develop 
more leaf surface, consequently to grow very rapidly in 
diameter, thus laying on large quantities of wood. It is 
rare that a farmer with a small woodlot will care to grow 
trees for a particular use, but he can always use to best 
advantage tall, well-developed trees of various sizes. It 
seems best then to encourage height growth first by a 
close stand and then by thinning at the proper time, to 
provide for the rapid increase in diameter. This has in 
every case a tendency to produce well-developed trees. 

KIND OF THINNINGS 

In a general way thinnings may be considered as of two 
kinds, first, improvement thinnings, and second, reproduc- 
tion thinnings. Each of these may be given a paragraph. 

Improvement thinnings 

Improvement thinnings have as their purpose merely 
the improvement of the present stand. This may consist 



Practical Sylviculture 



147 



in clearing 
woodlots of 
dead mate- 
rial, either on 
the ground or 
on the stump, 
of removing 
brush, small 
worthless trees, 
or removing a 
part of the 
regular stand 
so as to im- 
prove the de- 
velopment and 
the quality of 
the remaining 
trees. An im- 
p ro vement 
thinning must 
never be very 
heavy, since 
the purpose is 
to benefit the 
trees that are 
to make the 
final crop, and 
at all times 

there should be sufficient density to the canopy to shade 
out any grasses that would be sure to come in if the 
crowns were grouped or unevenly distributed. 




Fig. 42. — Woodlot in need of an improvement 
cutting. 



148 The Farm Woodlot 

Reproduction thinnings 

Thinnings of this nature have for their purpose the 
encouragement of reproduction so as to have a crop of new 
trees well started by the time the mature crop is removed. 
Reproduction thinnings must necessarily be heavier than 
improvement thinnings and must be carried on at such 
times as the trees are producing seed and the soil is in 
favorable condition to receive the seed, in order that the 
new trees may start evenly throughout the woodlot. 
There always must be enough light admitted to the 
ground to enable these young trees to grow. As soon as 
they are thoroughly established and grown to a consider- 
able size, say ten years old, the old trees may be rapidly 
or gradually removed. The woodlot owner must be 
very careful of this new growth during the process of 
removing the old trees. With the right kind of species 
properly handled, it may be unnecessary to add any plant- 
ing, except possibly to a small extent where the growth is 
uneven. In case seeding cannot be depended on, from the 
native trees, to supply the reproduction, and sprout 
growth is not advisable, a regular reproduction thinning 
may be made, followed by the planting of seed or seedlings. 
This is certain to produce a more uniform stand and to 
establish a new growth of trees in very much less time 
than when natural reproduction is depended on. In the 
woodlot, improvement thinnings usually develop into 
reproduction thinnings as the trees approach commercial 
maturity. In the selection system of handling woodlands, 
reproduction thinnings are made whenever the selected 
or mature trees are cut and removed. 



Practical Sylviculture 



149 



RESULTS OF THINNINGS 

The practical results of thinning the woodlot are 
usually not appreciated at the time they are made, nor is 




Fig. 43. 



■ Cordwood taken out in thinning. Note evenness of remain- 
ing stand. 



there a record kept that will show what are the actual 
results in increased growth. The increase in wood volume 
is through increased diameter rather than through 
increased height. An average white pine tree 10 inches 
in diameter at 4| feet from the ground and 60 feet high 
contains 95 board feet of unedged lumber. By providing 




Fig. 44. — Fifty-year-old plantation of white pine. 

shade. 



Note the density of 



Practical, Sylviculture 151 

more space in a stand for such a tree by thinning, its diam- 
eter may be increased to 15 inches with practically no 
increase in height, thus increasing the volume from 95 to 
195 board feet. This is a gain in diameter of 100 per cent, 
aside from the better quality of wood produced. An 
averaged developed chestnut tree 10 inches in diameter 
will produce two railroad ties and about one-third cord of 
wood. The same tree with a five-inch increase in diam- 
eter will yield five ties and one-half cord of wood. This 
means an increase in tie value alone of 150 per cent. This 
may also be applied, but with slightly less increase, to oak. 
Hardwood sprout growths in the woodlot by judicious 
thinning may be converted from a cord wood to a log 
proposition. This increase in value is the result of rapid 
growth of individual trees through careful thinning, often 
bringing them to commercial maturity ten or twenty 
years earlier than if left unthinned. The quality of the 
timber is largely increased through clear, straight, tall 
and even-grained trees. In addition, the woodlot is kept 
clear of diseased and insect infested trees, danger from 
fire is reduced to a minimum, all parts are made more 
readily accessible and the general appearance and aesthetic 
value are greatly improved. 

In a woodlot of white pine in New England in which 
thinning operations were carried on, there were trees 
ranging in diameter from five to twenty-two inches, in 
height from sixty to seventy feet and spaced approximately 
on an average twelve by twelve feet, or about three hun- 
dred trees to the acre. Thinnings were made as shown 
in the following table : — 



152 



The Farm Woodlot 





Diameter Breast High (Inches) 




5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


Trees re- 




moved 


6 


17 


31 


30 


38 


40 


17 


18 


12 


10 


3 


— 


2 


1 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Trees left 


1 


1 


3 


10 


16 


32 


19 


36 


36 


32 


29 


24 


24 


10 


4 


4 


4 


1 



Out of 511 trees 225 were removed, representing about 
27,050 board feet out of a total of 77,190 board feet. All 
together, during the thinning process, about two-fifths of 
the trees were removed, representing about one-third of the 
volume. The cost of this thinning varied from 83 cents a 
thousand board feet to $1.50 a thousand board feet for 
day labor. 



CHAPTER VII 
FOREST PROTECTION 

Protection of the woodlot is an extremely important 
and very simple matter. Most of the difficulties and com- 
plications in connection with forest protection occur in the 
management of extensive forests. Here large sums of 
money must be spent in making different parts of the forest 
accessible, in cutting expensive fire breaks and in main- 
taining patrols in the danger season. These are the things 
that require money and technical knowledge. 

Few woodlots involve any of these questions. They are 
usually small and surrounded by open country or well 
traversed by roads, making them accessible all around. 
These roads and the open country are very efficient fire 
breaks, which, together with location of the woodlots in a 
comparatively thickly settled country, make any patrol 
unnecessary. The woodlot is, however, liable to a certain 
degree to the following dangers : fire, grazing, mismanage- 
ment, trespass, windfall, sunscald, insect and fungi at- 
tacks. The remedies in most cases are very simple. 

FIRE 

Only two types of fires are likely to occur in the woodlot, 
the ground fire and the surface fire. The ground fire 
burns below the surface fed by the humus, leaf mold and 
peat in the soil. These fires occur commonly only in 

153 



154 The Farm Woodlot 

those regions in which there is a great amount of peat in 
the soil, this usually being the case in swampy country only. 
Such land is too wet to burn except in very dry seasons, 
when it becomes very inflammable. A fire started on the 
surface eats rapidly into the ground, sometimes to consider- 
able depths according to the thickness of the peat forma- 
tion. The fierce heat from such a fire enables it, when it 
has once secured a good start, to dry out the ground ahead 
of it sufficiently to burn through a quite wet swamp. 
Fire often smolders across a swamp in this way unnoticed 
and breaks out in a violent conflagration on the other side. 
The Hinckley fire and several other disastrous fires started 
in just this way. The usual cause of such a ground fire is 
a poorly located and neglected camp fire ; sometimes it is a 
discarded match or cigar stump or a surface fire. Such a 
fire destroys not only the fertility of the soil, but the soil 
itself, and burns off the roots of the trees so that they fall 
of their own weight or are blown over by the first wind. 
This makes a tangled mass of dead trees and brush in 
which the next fire would be wholly beyond control. 
There is only one way to fight such a fire : by ditching all 
around it to the depth of the mineral soil and keeping a 
careful watch to see that it does not cross the ditch. If, 
by any chance, the fire gets a start unnoticed and kills the 
trees, the burned area should be gone over as soon as 
possible and all the material that can be used in any form 
removed. This should not be neglected, for the shallow- 
rooted species that grow in such situations are seldom du- 
rable and rot very rapidly. When the useful material has 
been removed, the remaining brush should be burned 
carefully to lessen the chances of another fire. 



Forest Protection 155 

A surface fire burns in the moss, leaves and underbrush. 
In fact, in many regions it is such a common occurrence for 
the forests to burn over in this way every spring and fall 
that no one pays any attention to them. Sohie owners 
even set these fires in their woodlots with the idea of im- 
proving the grazing. It is the impression generally that 
these surface fires do no damage because they do not very 
obviously injure the mature trees. This impression is 
altogether wrong. The surface fire does an enormous 
amount of damage in any forest ; and more especially is 
this so in the woodlot. The obvious injury to the mature 
timber is, indeed, slight, but damage has been done. 
The litter which should naturally increase the fertility of 
the soil is destroyed, and land that is burned over every 
year deteriorates steadily. The surface roots are injured 
or killed by the heat and the trees rendered liable to wind- 
fall. The trees are burned at the base so that considerable 
loss is experienced in logging through the cutting of high 
stumps and the butting of the bottom log — the very best 
timber in the whole tree. This is more especially true of 
conifers. 

The greatest loss is in the young growth, which is very 
susceptible to injury from fire in all species. A surface 
fire every three or four years is sufficient to destroy most of 
the young growth and the annual burning makes all 
reproduction impossible. It also fosters the growth of 
herbaceous weeds and sprouting shrubs to such an extent 
that tree seedlings are crowded out completely. In the 
virgin forest in which most of the timber is mature and 
very little young growth is present, this does not matter 
so much to the owner, for he counts on moving to another 



156 The Farm Woodlot 

tract for his next cut and has no idea of raising another 
crop on the same ground. In the woodlot in which the lo- 
cation is necessarily permanent, the very existence of the 
forest depends absolutely upon this young growth. A cer- 
tain amount of timber must be ready for the harvest each 
year or the woodlot fails of its purpose. To furnish this 
mature timber regularly and continuously, young growth of 
all ages must always be present. Fire of any kind breaks up 
this series and impairs the producing capacity of the forest. 

These fires occur at different times of the year in differ- 
ent sections of the country but there are two seasons when 
they are most prevalent. In the spring after the snow has 
melted and before the vegetation has leafed out, the sun's 
rays fall directly on the leaf mold and make it as dry as 
tinder. Practically the same conditions exist in the early 
autumn after the leaves have fallen and before the snows 
or fall rains begin. The least spark will then cause a fire 
which soon gets beyond control unless discovered in the 
very inception. These are the times when fires are most 
likely to occur, but a severe drought may bring about 
these conditions at any time of the year. 

The railroads are responsible for a very large percentage 
of the forest fires. Sparks from the smoke stack and live 
coals from the fire box are almost certain to start forest 
fires in dry seasons. In fact, it was found necessary in a 
particularly dry season in the Adirondacks to patrol the 
forests after every train, and the patrol was seldom in 
vain. Spark arresters on the smoke stacks and regulations 
restricting the dumping of the ashes to suitable places 
do away with most of this danger. The clearing and 
burning over of a strip on either side of the right of way is 



Forest Protection 157 

also a very good protective measure. If it is not desirable 
to have this space idle, keep good, healthy trees growing 
to the very edge of the right of way and keep them very 
carefully freed from all dead limbs and dry litter on the 
ground. Highways should be treated in much the same 
manner as railroads on account of the danger from matches 
and cigar butts carelessly thrown aside by the passers-by. 

Next to the railroads, the burning of fallows is the most 
frequent cause of fire. The farmers fire their meadows and 
marshes in the spring to burn out the dead grass and 
to improve the pasture. In spite of the laws making a 
closed season for fallow burning in many states, fires are 
started at dry seasons and quickly get beyond control. In 
fact, many farmers take no further interest in a fire after 
they have started it, and let it run wherever it will. The 
property of others is often destroyed in this way and the 
fires frequently run into the forests from the meadows. 
More care in choosing a suitable time for firing the meadow 
would eliminate most of this danger. Such a fire should 
never be started during a drought or when there is a heavy 
wind. About five o'clock in the afternoon on a clear day 
shortly after a rain is a good time to set such a fire. The 
open field then will be sufficiently dry to burn well, while 
the moisture in the woods and the falling of the dew in the 
evening will prevent the fire from getting beyond control. 
Where meadow land adjoins forest, a strip a rod wide 
should be plowed and kept clear. 

The setting of fires in the woods itself should never be 
permitted — for the returns in grass will never repay the 
damage done to the forest. This practice of firing the 
woods is most prevalent in the South, where it is done 



158 The Farm Woodlot 

regularly every year. In some places the people are be- 
ginning to learn from experience that the burning is not a 
good practice even from an agricultural standpoint. The 
fertility of the soil decreases steadily and the better 
grasses are replaced by coarser and inferior species. 

In some sections many fires are started by tramps who 
camp in the woodlots for the night, cook their dinners, 
and are careless with their camp fires. They take no care 
in locating the fires and then leave them to be spread 
by the wind. They should be watched closely and care 
should be taken in handling them, or they may maliciously 
or thoughtlessly fire the woods. li • 

There are a few precautionary measures that should be 
observed in every woodlot no matter how remote the danger 
from fire may appear to be. All slashings from lumbering, 
all windfalls and all dead brush should be piled and care- 
fully burned. This is an inexpensive process and prevents 
the occurrence of a violent fire. A fire running in a clean 
woods is easily controlled, but in the dry slashings or wind- 
fall it is impossible to do anything with it. 

If the tract is large, there should be several roads through 
it to make all parts of it easily accessible and to serve as 
bases from which to fight the fire. These should be kept 
well cleaned out and the mineral soil exposed wherever 
possible. There is no better fire break than a well-main- 
tained road. Unassisted it will stop any surface fire in a 
clean forest and prevent it from spreading over the whole 
tract. These are both good sylvicultural measures and 
cause no inconvenience. 

The most effective implements in fighting fire are the 
shovel and the plow. A well-turned furrow will stop a light 



Forest Protection 159 

ground fire and a shovel-full of mineral soil spread over 
the advancing line will put out the blaze wherever it 
touches. In digging a ditch to head off the fire, the dirt 
should be thrown in toward the blaze so that the fire will 
be too much weakened to jump the ditch. Often, when a 
ditch cannot be placed effectually across the whole front 
of the fire, it can be flanked obliquely and the front so re- 
duced that it can be controlled, or it can be run into a 
swamp or stream. Every swamp, stream, road or hill top 
is a point of vantage from which to fight. There is such a 
drought from a valley that little can be done with a fire on 
a slope, but a very small fire break will stop it on a ridge. 

The time to fight fire is at night. In the day time when 
the sun has dried up the dew, warmed up everything and 
raised a wind, the flames cannot well be handled and the 
fire will usually travel faster than a small crew of men can 
work. A small fire may be attacked in the day time and 
handled before it has gained great headway, but if it is 
under full headway a great amount of labor is saved by 
waiting till night to make a fight against it. The day 
should be spent in studying the fire and the topography, 
picking out good vantage points and making preparations 
for the night's work. The wind usually goes down some- 
what with the sun, the dew dampens everything and the 
fire is reduced to a fraction of its daytime fury. 

When the tract abuts on another forest property, it is 
well to place a road on the boundary or at least clear the 
brush from a strip two rods wide, plow a few furrows on 
either side and burn in between. This strip should be 
burned over every year — preferably in the spring — and 
kept clean. 



160 



The Farm Woodlot 



GRAZING Figs. 45-48 

Grazing is one of the evils that is doing the most damage 
in the farm woodlots to-day. On a large number of the 




Fig. 45. — No reproduction at present. Due to grazing. 

farms, the woodlot is regarded as a shaded pasture and 
grazed continuously, little thought being given to the 
effect on the wood-producing capacity. This has gone on 



Forest Protection 161 

year after year till the tract has, in fact, become a shaded 
pasture; the forest conditions have completely disap- 
peared and the woodlot has the appearance of a city park 
with a few mature trees scattered over an open grass plot. 

The amount of damage done depends on many factors. 
Of these, the most important are : the condition of the 
forest when the stock is admitted ; the species of animal 
admitted ; the species of trees ; the condition of the soil 
and the slope of the land. 

The injury to the forest consists of : the browsing of the 
young seedlings, and of the succulent leaves and shoots of 
everything within reach; the gnawing and stripping of 
the bark, especially from the young trees ; the trampling 
and breaking down of seedlings ; the bruising of the sur- 
face roots, especially by the heavily shod horses; and 
the hard packing of the forest floor. 

The greatest damage is likely to result when regeneration 
is in its early stages — for it is the browsing and tramping 
of the young seedlings that does the most damage to the 
forest. Each seedling nipped off means from two to four 
years wasted in the growth of that tree, and the same 
thing is likely to occur again when the growth is renewed. 
This means that there is very little chance for the young 
growth to grow above the reach of the animals, where it 
would be comparatively safe. The correctness of this 
theory is proven by the appearance of tracts that have been 
heavily grazed for a series of years. Young growth is 
absolutely lacking and only the mature trees remain. 

In a large forest which is managed on the compartment 
system, it is easily possible to allow grazing in the forest 
generally but prohibit it on the areas undergoing repro- 



162 



The Farm Woodlot 



duction. In the woodlot this cannot be done. Nearly 
all the woodlots are managed on the selection system, 
individual trees cut here and there throughout the woods, 
which means that reproduction is going on all over the 




Effect of grazing on hardwood reproduction. 



woods at the same time. This makes it impossible to pro- 
tect young growth from the grazing animals. 

Cattle are most frequently pastured in the woodlot and" 
they do less damage than any other grazing stock. They 
prefer grass to trees, and will not browse so long as the 
grass holds out. Care should be taken not to turn in more 



Forest Protection 



163 



stock than the grass in the woods can carry ; nor to turn 
them in before the grass has started; nor to keep them 
there when the grass is old and tough. If these rules are 
not followed carefully, the cattle will be forced by hunger 
to browse, and on account of their height and weight can 




Damage done by cattle to oak sprouts. 



do a great deal of damage. Cattle browse only on the 
broad-leaved species, but may damage coniferous seedlings 
by trampling them. 

Goats do not need the incentive of hunger to make them 
browse. They prefer the shoots of the trees to grass, 
and eat conifers as well as deciduous trees. By standing 



164 



The Farm Woodlot 



on their hind legs and walking up the small saplings with 
their front feet, they are able to bend down trees six or 
eight feet high and browse off the tops. They eat with a 
jerking, pulling motion which frequently strips the bark 




Fig. 48. 



Effect of grazing. Note reproduction to the left of fence 
where stock has been kept out. 



from the trunks along with the small twigs. They should 
be kept out of the woodlot at all times. 

Sheep have somewhat the same characteristics as goats, 
but are not so apt to browse unless the ground feed runs 
out. Neither do they take kindly to the coniferous seed- 
lings. However, the numbers must be very carefully 
limited — for, if the range becomes at all crowded, the 
sheep will browse very heavily on the young hardwood 



Forest Protection 165 

growth. The fact that sheep are frequently used to clean 
up brush land shows what they will do in the way of de- 
stroying broadleaf growth. Greater care is necessary in 
limiting the number of the sheep than cattle, for when 
crowded they are like a flock of locusts. Horses, especially 
young horses, do much damage by browsing the leaves 
and small twigs as high as they can reach, and gnawing 
the bark off the saplings. They also trample down a great 
many seedlings with their heavy tread and tear the bark 
from the surface roots of the shallow-rooted species with 
their iron shoes. They will not browse conifers, but break 
down many of them in running around for exercise. Fiirst, 
in his book on forest protection, classifies the domestic 
animals, according to the amount of damage that they do, 
as follows : goats, horses, sheep and cows. 

When the soil is light and has a tendency to drift with 
the wind, grazing animals do much to stir it up and start 
it moving. When there is heavy clay, they pack it down 
so that germinating seeds cannot get a foothold. When 
the slope is steep, they are very apt to pry loose the earth 
and start erosion. 

Do not use the woodlot for a pasture unless it is neces- 
sary, and then graze it as lightly as possible. That is a 
rule which can be followed safely everywhere and at all 
times, except when the object is the clearing out of the 
underbrush. 

MISMANAGEMENT 

Probably the greatest danger to which the woodlot 
is subjected is mismanagement by the owner. No atten- 
tion is given to the maintenance of production, either in 



166 The Farm Woodlot 

quantity or quality. The amount of wood needed on the 
farm is the standard for cutting, without any regard to the 
amount produced. The rate of growth, which is the only 
true gauge of the producing capacity, is not considered. 
When the woodlot is large, sufficient timber is not removed 
and the excess growth rots away. When the woodlot is 
too small, all the annual product and some of the produc- 
ing stock are taken, thus decreasing the output yearly. 
Nearly every woodlot is deteriorating in quality under 
the present system of management. The most desirable 
species are cut until they are all gone and the undesirable 
species are left to seed up the vacant places. A few years 
of such treatment leaves a tangle of. tree weeds, worthless 
for almost any purposes except firewood. A little care in 
the selection of trees for cutting would make it possible 
to utilize most of this poor timber for firewood before the 
good species are cut and thus insure the seeding of the 
ground by the better species. In this way the value of 
the woodlot may be improved from year to year instead 
of lowered. This properly belongs to sylviculture and will 
be taken up in detail under the head of "The Care of the 
Woodlot." 

TRESPASS 

There is no form of property that is so liable to trespass 
as forests. There is a very general idea that the forest 
is common property and open to the public for hunting, 
picnics and wood supplies of all kinds. The small woodlot 
is not exposed so much to theft as to hunters and tramps 
who are likely to set fires. However, when the woodlot 
borders on the property of another, especially forest land, 



Forest Protection 167 

the line should be carefully surveyed and clearly defined. 
Both parties should be witness to the accuracy of the sur- 
vey and testify the same on the map or survey notes. If 
the woodlot lies at some distance from the house and re- 
mote from a well-traveled road, it should be visited oc- 
casionally to see that no one is trespassing. Not only is 
the wood lost by the theft, but the whole scheme of man- 
agement is upset by the promiscuous cutting. 

WINDFALL 

Windfall is likely to occur only when the woodlot is 
made up of shallow-rooted species, such as the spruce, 
beech, birch, balsam and tamarack. It is usually caused 
by winds that blow fairly consistently from some one direc- 
tion. Damage is prevented by leaving a row or two of 
deep-rooted species along the windward boundary for a 
windbreak and never exposing the shallow-rooted trees 
to the full force of the winds by cutting the wind-firm trees 
around them. This is quite easily done because the 
shallow-rooted trees are usually shorter and located on 
lower ground where the wind is not so likely to strike 
them. In case the woodlot is made up entirely of shallow- 
rooted species, it is necessary to accustom them to the 
wind and thus strengthen their roots by thinning them 
gradually and not making any heavy cuttings where the 
remaining trees will be exposed to the wind. Should 
windfall occur, the same measures that are described under 
"ground fires " should be taken at once. In a small wood- 
lot, little loss need result. 



168 The Farm Woodlot 

SUNSCALD 

Sunscald is more likely to occur in the case of lawn or 
park trees than in the woodlot. It is caused by the direct 
rays of the sun scorching the bark and cambium layer of 
the trunk. Only the smooth, thin-barked trees are ex- 
posed to this danger. Maples and basswoods are particu- 
larly susceptible. It almost invariably occurs on the 
southwest side where the sun strikes hottest. The burn- 
ing kills the growing tissue just under the bark and causes 
the bark to peel off in patches. The result is an ugly 
wound, an easy mark for fungi, that weakens the trees and 
sometimes causes their death. If left exposed, such a 
wound can never heal over. In the lawn or park, the 
trunks of these thin-barked trees should be wrapped with 
burlap or straw until the crowns have grown sufficiently 
to shade them. In the woodlot they can be shaded by 
other trees or underbrush. Sprouts from the roots, that 
do not look well on ornamental trees, can here be allowed 
to grow to protect the trunk. Care should be taken not 
to leave such trees exposed on the south or west side of 
the tract. When the scalding has taken place, the in- 
jured tree should be cut out before it becomes a breeding 
place for insects and fungi. The lawn tree, if wrapped 
before the scalding has spread too far, will heal the wound 
in time, but such a healed-over wound is especially sus- 
ceptible and should never be exposed again. 

INSECTS 

When the supply of timber in the United States seemed 
unlimited, the comparatively insignificant ravages of the 



Forest Protection 169 

insects were unnoticed, but as the supply of standing tim- 
ber has decreased, the work of the insects has come more 
to our notice and they have apparently become more 
numerous. When the growth of our forests becojnes more 
concentrated under proper management, we may expect 
the insects to play a more important part as they do in 
the forests of Europe to-day. Up to the present time, 
comparatively few insects are known to have done exten- 
sive damage in this country. The gipsy and brown- 
tailed moths have worked havoc over rather limited areas 
in New England. The larch saw fly at one time destroyed 
much of the tamarack in the Northeast. The white pine 
weevil frequently does considerable damage in the same 
district. The spruce-destroying beetle killed all the 
spruce on large tracts in the forests of West Virginia and 
the pine-destroying beetle has done much the same 
damage in the Black Hills. The hickory borer is fairly 
well distributed throughout the range of that species and 
the locust boreres are found nearly everywhere that the 
black locust or mesquite grows. These are the most 
important of the insects which attack the trees in the forest 
and the ones to be fought against and destroyed. There 
are several others that do considerable damage among 
lawn and park trees, but have never yet become numerous 
enough to do much damage in the forest. The most im- 
portant of these are the elm beetle and the forest tent cater- 
pillar. These insects may be divided into two classes : 
the leaf-eaters, which work mostly on street and lawn trees, 
and the bark borers, which work wherever their favorite 
species are found. 



170 The Farm Woodlot 

The gipsy moth 

Of all the insects which have infested the trees of the 
United States, the gipsy moth has done the most damage 
and most stubbornly resisted all attempts at control. It 
was brought to this country from Europe in 1868 in con- 
nection with some silk-producing experiments. It es- 
caped from captivity in Massachusetts and gradually 
increased in numbers till the state was obliged to at- 
tempt its extermination in 1890. It spread over a large 
portion of Massachusetts and invaded New Hampshire, 
Maine, Connecticut and Rhode Island. These states 
have spent several million dollars in combating it, but have 
not yet been able to exterminate it. 

The moth has a wing spread of 2| inches, and is a dusky 
white with blackish blotches and streaks. The eggs, four 
or five hundred of them, are laid in July and August 
directly on the bark of trees or on fences, walls, and the 
like. They form an irregular oval mass, f by 1^ inches, of a 
yellow or dark creamy color from the hairs or scales from 
the body of the female. This color is distinctive. The 
eggs hatch about May 1, and the swarm of young cater- 
pillars usually become full grown by midsummer. The 
mature larva has a dusky or sooty colored body. Along 
the back, counting from the head, which is marked with 
yellow, is a double row of six pairs of red spots. It 
frequently attains a length of 3 inches. They become 
full grown during July, usually about the first. Injury 
occurs in May and June, increasing as the caterpillars grow. 
When fully groAvn, usually in July, the caterpillar spins 
a few silken threads for support, casts its skin and changes 



Forest Protection 171 

into a pupa which is dark reddish or chocolate in color and 
very thinly sprinkled with dark reddish hairs. The pupa 
stage lasts from ten days to two Aveeks, while the cat- 
erpillar is changing to a moth. 

The female moth does not fly and dies soon after de- 
positing the egg mass, which remains over winter on the 
tree. All the damage is caused by the caterpillars. The 
moth spreads in the caterpillar stage or by the transporta- 
tion of the egg clusters. 

The caterpillar feeds on any species of tree found in 
Massachusetts and completely defoliates them. Two or 
three defoliations will kill the hardwoods, one only will 
kill the softwoods. 

The insect has many natural enemies, but they are not 
sufficient to keep it in check without human aid. The 
most effective method is the soaking of the egg masses 
with a creosote mixture applied with a small swab or 
brush. The trees must be climbed and a careful search 
made for the clusters. Arsenate of lead, 10 pounds to 100 
gallons of water, may also be used effectively as a spraying 
solution when the caterpillars are small. Since the cater- 
pillars crawLup the trees in search of a crevice in which 
to lie during the day, a loose band of burlap will form an 
inviting retreat in which many will collect. This must 
be examined daily and the caterpillars destroyed. Bands 
of paper covered with printers' ink or "tanglefoot" catch 
many and prevent them from going up the trees. 

The hrown-tail moth 

The brown-tail moth (Euproctis abrysorrhora) was in- 
troduced from Europe on some nursery stock in 1890. 



172 The Farm Woodlot 

Owing to the flying abilities of the female, the spread has 
been very rapid. It now infests about the same territory 
as the gipsy moth. 

The winter webs, three or four inches long, may be 
found on the tips of the twigs of fruit and shade trees. 
They are composed of silk and leaves woven into a tough 
net which is bound to the twig by silk and leaf stems. 
This is filled with a mass of small, brown, hairy cater- 
pillars i inch long. The little caterpillars emerge late 
in April and early May and attack the opening buds. 
These nests contain 400 to 900 caterpillars. These are of 
a blackish color, covered with warm brown or reddish 
brown hairs. The head is jet black, while the body is 
marked with yellow. Projecting from the back of the 
fourth and fifth segments is a large tuft of reddish brown 
hairs looking like a brush, and two-thirds the height of the 
body. On the middle line of both the ninth and tenth 
segments is an orange or coral red retractile tubercle. By 
the second week in June the caterpillar has attained its 
full growth, 1 to 1^ inches in length, and has molted three 
or four times. Its head is then a pale brown, mottled 
with darker brown. The body is a dark brown or black, 
well marked with patches of orange and covered with 
some cross tubercles bearing long barbed hairs. The 
white dashes along the sides of the abdomen are more 
prominent and enable the immediate identification of 
the caterpillar. During the second week in June they 
pupate, spinning their cocoons of white silk among the 
leaves. This stage lasts about twenty days. Most 
of the moths emerge during the second week of July. 
They usually emerge late in the afternoon and are ready 



Forest Protection 173 

to fly that night. Both sexes are pure white, except the 
abdomen, which is dark brown. The wing spread is from 
1| to 1| inches. The tip of the abdomen of the female 
forms a large tuft or brush of golden or dark brown hairs, 
to which is due the name of the insect. They are strong 
fliers and readily attracted by lights. Egg-laying com- 
mences at once. The egg mass, dark brown in color from 
the hairs from the tip of the female's abdomen, is laid on 
the under side of a leaf near the outside of the tree. It is 
about i by J inch and contains from two to four hundred 
eggs. It is decidedly convex and ridged. The eggs 
hatch in about three weeks, about the first of August. 
The young caterpillars feed upon the surfaces of leaves, 
skeletonizing them, and when abundant causing the 
leaves to turn brown. They grow rapidly and spread over 
the tree. In September they weave the web for their 
winter home. 

The brown-tail moth prefers fruit trees, but when very 
numerous attacks all kinds of shade and forest trees. The 
damage is caused by defoliations, as in the case of the gipsy 
moth. In addition to the danger to the trees, the fine 
hairs from the tubercles on the caterpillars are blown about 
by the wind at the time of molting and cause a painful 
skin irritation wherever they light. 

The best known remedy is the collection of the winter 
webs between October 1 and April 1. They should be 
clipped off with long pruning shears and burned in a stove, 
since they do not burn readily in the open. 

Spraying of the caterpillars in early August is also 
effective. The caterpillars are much more susceptible 
than those of the gipsy moth. This, however, is more 



174 The Farm Woodlot 

expensive. The banding of the trees with tanglefoot is 
also successful in the case of isolated trees, but the bands 
must be constantly watched to see that they do not be- 
come covered with dust, webs or dead caterpillars. De- 
struction of the pupae in June and early July is usually 
accompanied by severe poisoning. 

The pine-destroying beetle of the Black Hills 

This pine beetle (Dendroctinus ponderosa) , is one of the 
most active and destructive insects in the West and has 
already ruined large areas of timber in the Black Hills. 
It is not, however, of very great importance from one 
point of view, because the bull pine, the species most 
subject to its attacks, is not very well adapted to woodlot 
growth. 

Hopkins describes the adult as "a, stout, dark brown 
to black beetle, individuals of which vary in length from 
about i to J inch." 

The presence of the insect may be discovered by the fine, 
powdered dust sifting down the trunk of the tree. It 
first appears in August, when the adult beetles settle on 
the trees in swarms, and start their galleries, the resin and 
sawdust being pushed out of the opening where they form 
pitch tubes around the holes. These galleries are usually 
almost straight cut in the soft inner bark, often grooving 
the wood, and the eggs are laid in the notches along the 
sides. When the larvae hatch they start side galleries, 
at right angles to the primary gallery, that increase in size 
as the larvae grow. At the end of this gallery the full- 
grown larvae dig a widened cavity in which pupation 
takes place. The adult digs from this cavity through the 



Forest Protection 175 

bark and passes on to another tree. A great number of 
these galleries will girdle the tree and interfere seriously 
with the movement of sap. 

If the insects are in sufficient numbers, the tree is killed. 
The needles turn red the first year, a number of secondary 
enemies attack the weakened tree, fungi enter the wounds 
and in three or four years the tree is worthless. 

The beetle is best kept in check by cutting the infected 
trees, for it is in these weakened and dying trees that 
they multiply. The trees felled should be peeled or 
placed in a pond to kill the larvae. When the cutting can 
be carefully regulated, the insects can be controlled easily 
in this way, — for they must be present in great numbers 
to successfully attack living trees. 

The spruce-destroying beetle 

The spruce of the northwestern part of the United 
States finds its most formidable enemy in the Dendroctinus 
piceaperda, the spruce-destroying beetle. It has destroyed 
vast quantities of spruce timber in Maine, New Hampshire 
and West Virginia and is still active in those regions. 

According to Hopkins ''The adult varies from y\ to 
1^ inch in length and from iV to -^^ inch in width. It 
also varies in color from light yellowish brown in the 
younger specimens to reddish brown or nearly black in 
mature stages. The egg is small and pearly white like 
that of most bark beetles." 

The larva hatches out a minute, white legless grub and 
feeds on the inner bark till it increases to a size slightly 
larger than the adult. It may be distinguished by a dark 
yellowish brown space on the upper surface of each of the 



176 The Farm Woodlot 

last two abdominal segments. The pupa is nearly white, 
of the same size and somewhat the same form as the adult, 
but without free legs and wings, and is found in oblong 
cavities in the bark where the broods develop. 

The insects hibernate in the bark in the form of adults 
and larvae, — the eggs and pupse cannot stand the cold — 
from October to the first week in June. Activity then 
commences ; the mature larvae change to pupae and the 
adults lay their eggs in about twenty days, ten more and 
the larvae hatch, thirty more and the larvae are mature. 
In eighty days from the time activity commences, the 
first adults develop. They continue to develop till the 
last of September, but continue in the bark till activity 
ceases. Thus the insect spends eleven of the twelve 
months in the bark and is dormant seven and a half out 
of that eleven. 

The evidences of work are much the same as those in 
the case of Dendroctinus ponderosa. Pitch tubes are 
formed on the bark, fine sawdust is thrown out from the 
galleries of the larvae, the leaves turn a light gray-green 
and soon fall off. The twigs turn reddish. One season's 
work is usually enough to kill the tree, unless the attack 
is confined wholly to one side, for the galleries of the adults 
and larvae in the inner bark completely girdle the tree. 

All practical remedies lie along the line of carefully 
directed cutting. The beetles are dependent on the pres- 
ence of large numbers for their ability to attack living 
trees. Since most of the beetles are located in the mer- 
chantable part of the tree, the logging, provided the logs 
are placed in a pond or peeled, kills large numbers of 
them and may reduce the number below the point at 



Forest Protection 177 

which they can attack hving trees. The weakened con- 
dition of the trees girdled for trap trees attracts many 
and the logging of these trap trees destroys them. Other 
methods are too expensive to be practical. 

Elm-leaf beetle 

The elm-leaf beetle (Galerucella luteola) is one of the 
most familiar enemies of the elm tree throughout its 
range. It has destroyed thousands of shade and lawn 
trees, and, when numerous, frequently spreads to the 
woodlot and forest. It is evidenced by the skeletonized 
brown leaves in midsummer and the falling caterpillars. 

The beetle is \ inch long, orange and black when young 
and a dull bronze-green when he has wintered over. 
The caterpillar is ^ inch long when young, hairy and 
almost black, but grows to i inch in length and changes 
to yellow and black. The pupa is a bright orange-yellow 
and \ inch long. The eggs are an orange-yellow, 3-26 
of them being in irregular rows on the underside of the 
leaves. 

The elm-leaf beetles winter over in attics, sheds and 
other protected places. They fly to the trees with the 
coming of the leaves, eating irregular holes in the foliage 
and feeding for some time before they begin to lay. They 
lay a few eggs daily for a month or six weeks and sometimes 
total as many as 650. The eggs hatch in less than a week 
and the grubs appear about the middle of June. These 
larvae feed on the under surfaces of the leaves and skele- 
tonize them. They are full grown in 15-20 days, and wan- 
der down the trunk to pupate in some crack or other 
slight shelter. This is accomplished in about seven days. 

N 



178 The Farm Woodlot 

These busy little fellows sometimes start a second brood 
in July and even a third one in October. If the leaves 
are stripped off a tree two or three times for a couple of 
seasons, it dies. 

To destroy these beetles, spray the underside of the 
leaves with arsenical poison early in spring, or spray 
kerosene emulsion on the pupae on the ground or lower 
trunk of tree. There is no effective remedy in the forest. 

■ Bronze birch borer 

The adult of this beetle (Agrilus anxius) is a beetle from 
yV to I inch in length and olive-brown in color. The pupa 
is white, slender in form and about | inch in length. The 
larva is a grub f inch long, and a creamy white with 
black mouth parts. 

This insect is very common throughout the North, es- 
pecially where the cut-leaf birch is plentiful. It has played 
havoc with thousands of birch trees in our parks and 
lawns and has, in a few instances, attacked the white birch 
in the forest. Unless a careful lookout is kept, the dam- 
age is accomplished before the cause is located. The 
surest sign of its presence is the dying of the top branches. 

The beetles appear in the early summer, the eggs are 
laid and the larvae enter the tree in the fall and winter 
under the bark in the upper branches of the tree. With 
the warm weather in the spring, they begin burrowing in 
the soft cambium. Their presence may be traced by 
lightly reddish welts or streaks on the bark. Their 
galleries are sinuous, irregular and much interlaced. They 
pupate in May. 

In a woodlot the only practical remedy is to cut down 



Forest Protection 179 

the infested tree in winter or early spring and carefully 
burn all parts of it. In the case of valuable lawn trees, 
it may be possible to cut away only the infested branches, 
if they can all be discovered. It may be a help to band 
the trunks of the trees in May with raw cotton or sticky 
paper and kill the beetles so caught. Usually, however, 
the tree is injured beyond help before the insects are dis- 
covered, and it should be destroyed to prevent the injury 
of other trees. 

Forest tent-caterpillar 

This insect {Malacosoma disstria) is found practically all 
over the United States and has been known from time to 
time to destroy large tracts of forest in different parts of 
the country. They have several times become so nu- 
merous as to stop railroad trains. 

The moth is small, light buff-colored and very active. 
The caterpillars are almost black, with a row of whitish 
diamonds down the back. The pupae are found in white 
or yellowish cocoons in any convenient place. 

The moths appear in June or July and deposit their 
eggs in July, usually on the lower twigs. The larvae re- 
main in the eggs over winter and hatch out with the warm 
weather in the spring. They immediately begin stripping 
the leaves, on which they feed till about the first of June. 
They then begin to wander about to find a place to pupate. 
This requires about two weeks. They seem to prefer the 
sugar maple in the North and the oaks in the South, but 
when they become very numerous, they will attack any- 
thing. 

There are several remedies that may be used in the case 



180 The Farm Woodlot 

of valuable shade trees, but nothing for the woodlot, 
except the cutting out of the infested trees. The lower 
twigs may be trimmed and burned in winter, thus de- 
stroying the eggs ; the caterpillars may be jarred from the 
trees with a padded mallet and crushed ; the egg clusters 
may be sprayed with kerosene emulsion or whale oil soap ; 
the cocoons may be destroyed. These methods will be 
very effective if they are undertaken before the insects 
become too numerous. 

Fall web-worm 

This widespread insect {Hypantria textor) is one of our 
most destructive leaf eaters. It is found all over the 
United States east of the Rockies and feeds on a large 
number of species, including white elm, willows, poplars 
and all fruit trees. It can be identified readily by the 
conspicuous web tents on the tips of the branches and 
including the leaves, which are soon skeletonized and turn 
brown. The webs are never in the crotches. 

The moth varies from pure white to much spotted with 
black. The caterpillar is hairy, yellowish brown and 
black, the hairs springing in clusters from black and 
orange tubercles. The cocoon is thin and mixed with 
larval hairs, and is found at or near the surface of the 
ground. The eggs are in yellow clusters on the underside 
of the leaves. 

Moths are seen flying from early in June to the middle 
of August. The eggs hatch in seven to ten days and the 
caterpillars begin to appear in the latter part of June, 
but are thickest in August. They spin their web at once, 
and feed on the upper surfaces of the leaves within. They 



Forest Protection 181 

enlarge their webs from time to time to include more 
food. When a month old, they descend trees to pupate 
on or in the ground. 

To destroy these insects, burn the web carefully, and see 
that none escape. Spray with arsenical poisons about 
the time the caterpillars appear. Hogs turned into a 
plantation will root up and eat thousands of the cocoons. 

The locust borer 

This insect (Cyllene rohinioe) has done an enormous 
amount of damage not only by destroying trees, but also 
in many parts of the country by forcing the abandonment 
of an attempt to plant the black locust, which would 
otherwise be a very valuable plantation tree. 

The beetle is |^ to f inch long, brightly marked with 
golden yellow, with the antennae and legs dull yellowish. 
The pupa is f inch long, flattened and yellowish. The 
larva is j% to ^ inch long, flattened and club-shaped. 

Beetles appear on the trees in great numbers in Septem- 
ber. The eggs are laid in crevices of the bark. They 
soon hatch and the larvae immediately bore into the cam- 
bium, where they spend the winter. With the warm 
spring days, they start activities again, only this time they 
bore into the heartwood. The gallery is about a quarter 
of an inch in diameter and usually curves upward. The 
larvae pupate about the middle of July and the beetles 
come out in September. 

The presence of the insects is evidenced by holes in the 
bark from which the sap runs, a deadening of the cam- 
bium and consequent loosening of the bark, and sawdust 
around the base of the tree. As a rule, they do not attack 



182 The Farm Woodlot 

trees under four or five inches in diameter, so that they will 
usually reach fence-post size before the borer attacks 
them. This, however, does not always hold true, and oc- 
casionally trees of one or two inches are badly riddled. 

Little can be done to destroy these borers except to cut 
down and burn the infected trees in winter or early spring. 
The insects seem to attack more readily the trunks that 
are in full sunlight and hence dense planting may be a 
preventive. They can be kept from lawn trees by 
spraying or painting the trunks with something offensive 
to the insects. This is somewhat objectionable, and too 
expensive to apply in plantations. 



CHAPTER VIII 
FOREST MENSURATION 

Forest mensuration is the measurement of the crop. 
It is generally conceded to be the proof of all forestry work. 
Without measurement, one can know nothing of the con- 
tents, value or growth of his forest. The most compli- 
cated parts of the science arise in the handling of exten- 
sive forests and concern only the professional forester; 
the operations necessary in the management of a woodlot 
are very simple and should be familiar to every farmer. 
Many a farmer loses fully half of what is really his due 
because he does not know what is in his woodlot, how to 
measure the quantity of its products or how to estimate 
its real value. 

The unit in the measurement of all kinds of lumber, 
whether boards or dimension stuff, is the board foot, — 
a board one- inch thick, one foot wide and one foot long. 
For example : an inch board one foot wide and sixteen feet 
long contains sixteen board feet ; written 16 ft. B.M. 
(measuring 16 ft. board measure). A two-inch plank of 
the same dimensions contains 32 ft. B.M. A ''2X4" 
twelve feet long is equivalent to an inch board eight inches, 
or two-thirds of a foot, wide and contains eight board feet ; 
8 ft. B.M. A half-inch board six inches wide and 12 ft. 
long actually contains 3 ft. but usually is counted as inch 
material, on account of the increased labor and increased 

183 



184 The Farm Woodlot 

waste in sawing, and would be considered 6 ft. B.M. 
The two-inch plank would not really make two inch boards 
if sawn, because an eighth or sometimes a quarter of an 
inch, — according to whether a band saw or a circular 
saw is used, — is lost in sawdust. But this is not taken 
into account in measuring the thicker pieces. And so 
it is evident that there is more waste in sawing inch 
boards than in thicker material. The prices of lumber 
are usually quoted at so much a thousand feet board 
measure ; written 1 M.B.M. 

Lumber (which is an Americanism for boards) is meas- 
ured by means of a lumber rule on which there are six or 
eight scales, one for each common length, on which the 
contents of one-inch boards are calculated for all widths. 
The scaler must estimate or measure the thickness of each 
board and throw away all fractions. Thus, the scaler 
comes to a sixteen and a half foot plank. He turns to the 
sixteen-foot scale and measures the width. If it is twelve 
and a half inches wide, he looks opposite the twelve-inch 
mark in the sixteen-foot scale and finds the figure 16 — • 
the contents in board feet of a one-inch board twelve inches 
wide and sixteen feet long. He finds that the plank is 
two inches thick. He doubles the figure given on the 
scale and writes down 32 ft. B.M. as the contents of the 
plank. He disregards the extra half inch in width and the 
extra six inches in length. Hence the cutting of odd widths 
and lengths is always a loss to the owner. The most 
convenient time for scaling lumber is just as it comes from 
the saw and before it is piled. 

Fence posts are sold by the piece and are graded, accord- 
ing to the length and the diameter at the small end, into 



Forest Mensuration 185 

standard grades. These grades vary in different parts of 
the country and for different species. A chestnut post in 
the East must be seven feet long and six inches at the 
small end ; for a locust post, three inches at the small end 
is standard. As a rule, the standards are of a little smaller 
size in the West, or wherever the posts have to be shipped 
by rail. 

Piling is sold by the lineal foot and graded according to 
length and diameter. Railroad ties are sold by the piece. 
They must be cut according to the specifications of the 
railroad to which they are to be sold. As these specifica- 
tions vary from time to time and for the different roads, 
a copy of them should always be secured just before the 
ties are cut. A different grading of the ties according to 
width of face and depth may make a great difference in 
the total returns. It must be remembered that a tie 
contains about thirty board feet and it should be carefully 
considered whether a tree can be most economically used 
for ties, posts, piling, poles or saw logs. It is rarely ad- 
visable to cut all the trees into the same product, and each 
part of the tree should be devoted to the product that will 
bring the best returns. It seldom is profitable to split 
a large tree into posts or ties unless it is a species especially 
suited to that form of product. 

Telephone poles are graded according to length and diam- 
eter at small end. Logs usually are measured by the 
same standard unit as lumber, — the board foot. For 
example, a log is said to contain 200 ft. B.M., when the 
lumber sawed from it will scale 200 ft. B.M. For the pur- 
pose of measuring logs, the contents of logs of all lengths, 
diameters and species have been worked out and tabu- 



186 The Farm Woodlot 

lated. Such a table is called a log rule. There are forty 
or fifty of these rules in common use in the United States. 
Some are based on diagrams, some on mathematical 
formulae and still others on the actual results measured 
at the tail of the saw. All of them are more or less inaccu- 
rate. One that is accurate in one region will not be at 
all accurate in another in which the character of the timber 
is different. For this reason, the rule that is considered 
the best suited to the timber of a certain region usually is 
selected as the legal standard of that state. Other rules may 
be used in private contracts, but in all state business and 
all law suits in which the scale is not mentioned, the 
state standard must prevail. The Scribner and Doyle 
rules are those most widely used in the country. 

Logs are measured by means of a scale stick. This 
somewhat resembles a lumber scale. It usually is made of 
hickory and finished on one end with a convenient handle, 
on the other with a metal ferrule. On it are printed six 
or eight rows of figures representing the different standard 
log lengths : twelve, fourteen, sixteen, eighteen, twenty, 
twenty-two and twenty-four feet. In each row, opposite 
the inch marks on one edge, are the figures representing 
the number of board feet in a log of that length and 
diameter. Thus, for example, a scaler approaches a log, 
seventeen feet long and fifteen inches in diameter at the 
small end, with the Doyle rule. He disregards the odd 
foot in length and turns to the sixteen-foot column on his 
rule. All logs are scaled down to the nearest even length 
represented on the rule. The scaler lays the rule across 
the small end of the log, — for all logs are scaled on the 
small end, — and measures the diameter inside the bark. 



Forest Mensuration 187 

being careful to get the average diameter if the log 
is not round. Opposite the fifteen-inch mark and in the 
sixteen-foot row he finds 121 ft. This he records as the 
contents of the log. 

Any one can scale sound and straight logs when the 
contents may be read directly from the scale, but much 
experience is needed to scale crooked or defective logs 
with any degree of accuracy. The number of board 
feet that the defect will spoil must be estimated and 
deducted from the amount given by the scale. It is 
wholly a matter of experience and judgment. 

ALLOWANCE FOR DEFECTS IN SCALING 

The only difficult thing about scaling logs is the determi- 
nation of the allowance to be made for defects. Since this 
is learned by the scaler only through long years of experi- 
ence and actual observations of the sawing out of defective 
logs at the mill, it cannot very well be picked up by the 
farmer in the comparatively little practice that he receives 
in scaling. Allowance for defect must be largely a matter 
of guess work with him. 

Some attempts have been made to systematize this 
discounting for defects and reduce the results to tables 
showing the number of board feet to be deducted for a 
certain size and form of defect. For the aid of the in- 
experienced farmer some tables worked up by H. D. 
Tieman of the Yale Forest School are inserted here, 
quoted from H. S. Graves' book on ''Forest Mensuration." 

A cull table for center defects. — "This table is appli- 
cable to all center defects, such as holes, cup shake, rot, 
etc., which are four inches or more from the bark. To 



188 



The Farm Woodlot 



apply the table, measure the longest diameter of the defect, 
find the loss in board feet from the cull table, and deduct 
from the gross scale of the log. If the defect runs through 
the log, or if it appears only at the large end, measure the 
defect at the large end, otherwise at the small end. The 
table should be used only with short logs." 



CULL TABLE A 

Loss BY Defects of Different Diameter near the Center 
OF Logs. (Good for Defects more than 4 Inches from 
the Bark) 



Diam- 






Length of Logs in ] 


Feet 






eter 














OF 
















Defect 


10 


12 


13 


14 


16 


18 


20 


Inches 






Board Feet 








2 


5 


6 


6.5 


7 


8 


9 


10 


3 


9 


11 


12 


13 


15 


16.5 


18 


4 


14 


17 


18 


20 


23 


25.5 


. 28 


5 


20 


24 


26 


28 


32 


36 


40 


6 


27.5 


33 


36 


38.5 


42 


49.5 


55 


7 


36 


43 


47 


50 


57 


65 


72 


8 


45 


54 


58.5 


63 


72 


81 


90 


9 


56 


67 


74 


78 


89 


100 


112 


10 


67 


81 


87 


93 


107 


120 


133 


11 


80 


96 


104 


112 


128 


144 


160 


12 


94 


113 


122 


132 


151 


169.5 


188 


13 


109 


131 


142 


153 


175 


196.5 


218 


14 


125 


150 


162.5 


175 


200 


225 


250 


15 


142 


171 


184 


218 


226 


255 


283 



Discounts for defects near the edge of logs. — "Under 
this head may be included rot, splits due to careless 



Forest Mensuration 



189 



felling, superficial shake due to fire scars, sunscald, frosts, 
or any other defects which require the removal of a 
wide slab. The scaler measures the width of the slab 
which would obviously have to be cut off, finds in the table 
the loss in board feet, and deducts this from the gross 
scale of the log. If the defect runs through the log, follow- 
ing the grain, and does not extend deeper at the large 
than at the small end, the measurement is taken at the 
top. If the defect appears only at the large end, or 
extends relatively nearer the center than at the small end, 
the scaler must estimate the width of the slab, at the 
small end, which would have to be taken off." 

CULL TABLE B 
Loss BY Cutting Slabs from One Side op 10-Foot Logs 



DiAMETEB OP Log in Inches 



J^ 



18 



20 



26 



Board Feet 



1 








1 


1 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


8 


8 


8 


10 


10 


3 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


13 


14 


15 


15 


16 


17 


4 




14 


15 


17 


19 


20 


22 


23 


25 


26 


28 


5 






22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


33 


35 


37 


39 


6 








33 


35 


38 


41 


43 


46 


49 


52 


7 










45 


49 


52 


55 


59 


62 


65 


8 












60 


65 


68 


73 


76 


80 


9 














77 


82 


86 


91 


96 


10 
















97 


102 


107 


112 


11 


















119 


124 


129 


12 




















141 


148 


13 






















167 



190 



The Farm Woodlot 



CULL TABLE B 
Loss BY Cutting Slabs from One Side of 12-Foot Logs 



O X m 

S n n 



^ 



Diameter of Logs in Inches 



10 12 14 16 



20 



24 



26 



Board Feet 



1 





1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


2 


4 


5 


6 


7 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


11 


12 


3 


9 


10 


11 


13 


14 


15 


16 


18 


19 


20 


21 


4 




17 


19 


21 


23 


24 


26 


28 


30 


31 


33 


5 






27 


29 


32 


34 


37 


39 


42 


44 


47 


6 








39 


43 


46 


49 


52 


56 


59 


62 


7 










55 


59 


63 


67 


71 


75 


79 


8 












73 


78 


82 


87 


92 


97 


9 














93 


98 


104 


110 


115 


10 
















117 


123 


129 


135 


11 


















142 


149 


155 


12 




















170 


178 


13 






















200 



CULL TABLE B 
Loss by Cutting Slabs from One Side of 14-Foot Logs 



O Z m 

M " SI 

S CQ M 








Diameter of ] 


Logs in 


Inches 








Q S " 

S2IZ 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


1 





1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


2 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


3 


10 


12 


13 


15 


16 


18 


19 


20 


22 


23 


25 


4 




19 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


32 


34 


36 


39 


5 






31 


34 


37 


40 


43 


46 


48 


51 


54 


6 








46 


50 


53 


57 


61 


65 


68 


72 


7 










64 


68 


73 


78 


82 


87 


92 


8 












85 


91 


96 


102 


107 


113 


9 














108 


114 


121 


128 


134 


10 
















136 


143 


150 


157 


11 


















166 


173 


181 


12 




















197 


207 


13 






















234 



Forest Mensuration 



191 



CULL TABLE B 

Loss BY Cutting Slabs from One Side op 16-Foot Logs 



S5 a 






Diameter op 


Log in 


Inches 








« " W 
lit 








































^CO" 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


1 





1 


1 


2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


2 


5 


6 


7 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


3 


11 


13 


15 


17 


18 


20 


21 


23 


25 


26 


28 


4 




22 


25 


27 


30 


32 


35 


37 


39 


41 


44 


5 






35 


39 


42 


45 


49 


52 


55 


59 


62 


6 








52 


57 


61 


65 


69 


74 


78 


83 


7 










73 


78 


83 


89 


94 


99 


105 


8, 












97 


103 


109 


116 


122 


128 


9 














123 


131 


138 


146 


153 


10 
















155 


163 


171 


179 


11 


















189 


198 


207 


12 




















226 


237 


13 






















268 



Every farmer who sells any timber from his woodlot 
should understand this process thoroughly, for sharp 
practice often imposes on the ignorance of the owner and 
he loses much of his profits through an unfair scale. 

In some parts of the country, notably eastern New 
York, the standard is used as the unit of log measure. 
This standard is a log thirteen feet long and nineteen 
inches in diameter at the small end. Five standards 
are considered the equivalent of a thousand board feet. 
This rule is not very widely used. 

All logs for export are sold by the cubic foot, the most 
accurate unit of measurement. This measure is not used 
in the United States except in a few special cases. 

The cubic contents of a log is found accurately enough 



192 The Farm Woodlot 

for all practical purposes in the following rnanner : Measure 
the diameter of the log inside the bark at each end, being 
careful to get the average diameter if the log is not round. 
Turn to the table in the appendix of this book giving the 
area of circles. Add the two areas thus obtained. Divide 
the sum by two to get the average, and multiply the 
result by the length of the log in feet. This gives the 
number of cubic feet in the log. This method is sometimes 
used when the logs are sold for pulpwood. 

CORDWOOD 

One important unit of measurement that is used a great 
deal in connection with woodlot practice is the cord. The 
standard cord is a pile of 4-foot wood, 4 feet high and 
8 feet long, and contains 128 cubic feet of stacked 
wood. A cord foot is one-eighth of a cord and contains 
16 cubic feet of stacked wood. It is used as a measure 
of firewood, pulpwood, stave and heading bolts, short 
handle stock, shingle bolts, tan bark and nearly all other 
material that is cut into short lengths. 

The cord, however, though used as an absolute unit of 
measurement, does not always represent the same volume 
of wood, by any means. Some of the volume is occupied 
by the spaces between the sticks. The amount of this 
space will vary with the size, length and form of the 
sticks in the pile and the method of piling. The straighter 
the sticks, the more closely they will lie together in the pile 
and the higher will be the solid wood content. Thus cords 
of pine, fir, spruce .and tamarack will yield much higher 
results than the more crooked and irregular hardwoods. 

Large sticks yield a higher solid content than small 



Forest Mensuration 193 

sticks, because there is less chance for spaces between 
them. And for the same reason round wood stacks 
smaller than the same wood split up. It is a common 
saying among wood choppers that wood swells when it is 
split. It follows from the preceding reasons that there 
is less solid content in a pile of long sticks than in a pile 
of short ones, for there is more chance for crooks and 
bends. It follows that in a pile of sixteen-inch kindling 
wood four feet high and eight feet long, there is con- 
siderably more wood than in h third of a cord of standard- 
length sticks. 

The solid wood content of a cord varies so much, — 
from fifty to one hundred ten cubic feet, — that no defi- 
nite statement can be made in regard to it, but it is well 
to have the preceding points in mind when buying cord- 
wood. 

The term ''cord" does not always mean a standard 
cord. Its meaning varies in different localities. The 
length of the sticks varies from one foot to five feet, and 
yet a pile four feet high and eight feet long is known as 
a cord. Sometimes the distinction between short cords 
and long cords is made. They all sell as cords, but the 
proper allowance for the length of the sticks is made in 
the price. 

Another case in which anything like a general statement 
is only a guess that is rarely realized, is in the conversion 
of cords to board measure. Yet in some cases, — when 
large sized material is cut into short lengths, — both units 
of measurement are used, and it is convenient to have some 
factor by which to convert one into terms of the other. 
Since this ratio varies from 250 feet to the cord in some 



194 The Farm Woodlot 

localities to 1000 feet in others, it is absolutely necessary 
that each locality have a factor of its own. for no general 
factor will do. This conversion factor is obtained by 
scaling many logs before they are cut up and corded, 
and taking the average. The pulp companies of New 
England in buying spruce usually consider a cord equal 
to 560 board feet. Two cords to the thousand is as nearly 
a general statement as can be made, and that, in many 
cases, is very far from the truth. 

The nineteen-inch standard in the Adirondacks is 
roughly considered equivalent to one-third of a cord. A 
double cord is a pile of eight-foot sticks four feet high and 
eight feet long. It is a very common unit in handling 
pulp wood. 

THE HEIGHT OF A TREE 

The total height of a tree is of little importance to the 
farmer, but he should be able to measure the clear length 
and merchantable length of a standing tree. There are 
several finely adjusted and expensive instruments that 
give very accurate results, but these are not necessary 
for ordinary woodlot work. A cheap, homemade instru- 
ment will give sufficiently accurate results. 

Take two strips of wood about a quarter of an inch 
thick and an inch wide, — the top of a grape basket will 
be good enough material, — one four and a half and one 
six inches long. Tack these together so as to form a right 
angle. Connect the two loose ends with a third strip. 
Beginning at the right angle, measure off a half inch on 
the short strip. Drive a small wire nail into the edge of 
the strip at this point and at points one and a half, two 
and a half, three and a half, and four and a half- inches 



Forest Mensuration 195 

from the right angle. Drive a similar nail at the opposite 
end of the six-inch strip. Mark the quarter and half 
inch divisions on the short strip with small notches. Now 
drive a nail through the center of the six-inch strip and 
nail the triangle to the end of a pole five feet three inches 
long, the opposite end of which has been sharpened. 
The instrument is now complete. To measure the clear 
length of a standing tree, pace off a distance of fifty feet 
from the base of the tree, taking care to keep on the same 
level. Stick up the staff in the ground so that the graduated 
arm is parallel to the trunk of the tree, which must be in 
sight along the line AB. Since the staff is five feet long, 
the line AB will strike the tree five feet from the ground. 
The observer, with his eyes at A, looks at the point to 
which he wishes to measure and notes, by means of the 
nails and notches, where his line of sight crosses the 
graduated arm. The reading on the graduated arm in 
inches gives the height of the observed point above the 
ground in feet, each inch representing ten feet. By using 
the sight at D instead of A, the distance from the tree 
to the instrument may be reduced to twenty-five feet. 
This is convenient in the case of thick brush preventing 
a longer sight, but is more liable to error and harder on 
the neck of the observer. Should it be desirable to meas- 
ure something over fifty feet high, place the instrument 
one hundred feet from the tree and double the readings. 
Such an instrument should be used by the estimator to 
measure the number of logs in a tree, till he trains his 
eye to make an accurate estimate without it. Usually an 
accurate enough estimate can be made by standing a 
ten- or sixteen-foot pole up against the tree. 



196 The Farm Woodlot 



VALUATION SURVEY 

An accurate record of the amount of timber on a given 
tract may be secured by the following method. One 
man may do it but three can work more economically. 
A number of tally sheets such as that in the table on page 
198 should be prepared and placed in a convenient holder. 
Starting at one corner of the tract, the party moves parallel 
to one of the adjacent boundaries, two of the men measur- 
ing with calipers all the trees on a strip 66 feet, or one chain, 
or 4 rods, wide, and the third man recording the results 
on the tally sheet. These measurements should always be 
taken 4h feet from the ground. The trees on the inside of 
the strip are scratched with a bark marker or marked with 
chalk to avoid measuring them twice. The tally man may 
measure the length of the strip by means of a chain 66 feet 
long, attached to his belt. An experienced man can pace 
the distance accurately enough. Such a strip ten chains 
long contains one acre. For convenience in figuring out 
the result, the acres should be kept on separate sheets. 
When the end of the tract is reached, the party turns and 
runs another strip contiguous to the first. In this way the 
whole tract is covered. Not only are all the trees on the 
tract recorded according to diameter and species, but, 
by noting on the back of each sheet the nature of the coun- 
try traversed, data may also be secured for a fairly accurate 
map and the area of the tract is measured. If such an 
accurate survey is not desired, the strips may be run by 
compass at any interval desired. Strips every ten chains 
give 10 per cent, twenty chains 5 per cent, and forty 
chains 2| per cent of the tract. Ten per-cent measure- 



Forest Mensuration 197 

ments give results accurate enough for most purposes, if 
the tract is large ; on small tracts — 100 acres and less 
— all the trees should be measured. If the owner wishes 
to do the work alone and desires only a rough estimate, 
he may pace the distances and estimate the diameters of 
the trees in the strip. He should, however, first measure 
a number of trees to accustom his eye to accurate 
estimating. It is best to train the eye in this way every 
morning before starting the work. 

There are dozens of such so-called '' cruising" methods, 
and any one of them is fairly accurate for all practical 
purposes. The one described is, in the author's opinion, 
the most easily applied to small tracts by the untrained 
cruiser. The estimator should at the same time note, 
as nearly as possible, the percentage of loss from crooked 
and defective trees ; also the average height of the various 
trees of different diameters. The field work of the valua- 
tion survey is then complete. It remains to figure out 
the result from the collected data. 

These records from the different tally sheets are then 
collected on a single sheet. The totals thus obtained are 
divided by, the number of acres surveyed and the result 
is an average acre of the whole tract, giving the number of 
trees of each diameter and species. 

The data secured from the valuation surveys are worked 
up in the form of a table giving the number of trees of 
different diameters in each species on the average acre. 
This is called a stand table. By means of it the number of 
trees of different diameters and species on any number 
of acres on the tract may be calculated. 



198 



The Farm Woodlot 



Stand Table made up from Many Tally Sheets of the 
Same Form 



Type 



Date . 



No. 



Species 


WHITE 
OAK 


RED 
OAK 


WHITE 
ELM 


CHEST- 
NUT 


HARD 
MAPLE 


WHITE 

ASH 


HICK- 
ORY 


BLACK 
CHERRY 


p.B. H. 

in inches 

1 


11 


2 


6 


16 


2 








2 


17 


5 


7 


9 


1 








3 


16 


3 


5 










4 


7 




2 


2 


3 








5 


3 


1 














G 


1 




1 












7 




2 


1 


1 






1 


8 


2 


1 














9 








1 




1 






10 




1 


1 












11 


1 








1 








12 


1 














2 


13 


1 














14 


2 










1 




15 




1 1 




1 






16 






1 


2 




17 


1 


1 










18 






i 1 






2 




19 




1 








1 


1 


20 






1 1 




1 






21 


2 












1 




22 


1 




1 


1 










23 




1 














24 


1 
















25 




1 




2 










26 


1 








1 



























Forest Mensuration 



199 



STEM ANALYSES 

The next step is to find the volume in board feet and 
cords of all the trees represented in the stand table. This 
is most easily found by means of a volume table. In 
most cases, it would be possible for the farmers to secure 
the desired volume tables from the Forest Service, Wash- 
ington, D. C, which distributes them free of charge 
to all applicants. These volume tables — there should be 
one for each species — give the number of board feet 
contained in trees of certain diameters four and one half 
feet from the ground, and of a certain average height. 



VOLUME TABLE 
Red Oak 



No. OF Trees 



D. B. H. 



60 



Height of Tree in Feet 



65 



75 



80 



85 



90 



Inches 



Merchantable Feet B.M. 



6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 



33 

43 

57 

70 

88 

108 

114 

164 



35 


37 








46 


50 


53 


55 




60 


64 


67 


72 




75 


79 


84 


89 




92 


99 


104 


109 


116 


115 


121 


127 


133 


139 


140 


149 


156 


163 


169 


173 


182 


190 


198 


206 



144 
175 
212 



In the stand table we have recorded the diameter of 
the trees four and one half feet from the ground (D. B. H.) 
together with the number per acre and the species. Thus 



200 The Farm Woodlot 

by referring all the trees in the stand table to the proper 
volume tables, we are able to obtain the total volume of 
all the trees on the average acre. This is called a yield 
table and from it the farmer is able to tell the exact 
amount of lumber that his tract will cut, how much the 
yield will be if he takes out only the trees above a certain 
diameter, and what will be left for future cuts. 

CRUISING METHODS 

There are almost numberless methods of estimating 
timber by ocular estimate, or "cruising, " as it is commonly 
called ; but only two or three that are applicable to the 
woodlot will be taken up here. The results of the esti- 
mating is worked out in board feet, but the unit measure 
in the field is the log. The number of logs of different 
species, lengths and diameters are recorded on a tally 
sheet and the results worked out in the office. The diame- 
ter should always be estimated at the small end and in- 
side the bark, since that is where the scale is applied. 
The diameter at the large end does not make any dif- 
ference. 

In order to do this work accurately, the eye must be 
trained to two things, the estimating of diameters at a dis- 
tance, and the estimating of heights. The first may be 
secured by the use of tree calipers, which the beginner 
should always carry with him. He should estimate the 
diameter of every tree and then check it up by the use of 
the calipers. By doing his estimating at different distances 
from the tree, he can learn what the different diameters 
will look like at varying heights on the tree. The eye 
quickly becomes trained to this work, and in a short time 



Forest Mensuration 201 

the estimator will find that he rarely has to change his 
guess when the calipers have been applied. Till the 
estimator has become very expert, it is best to use the 
caliper check each day when beginning work, for the eye 
is apt to lose its cunning over night and needs tuning up. 

The eye can best be trained to measure heights by the 
use of a ten- or better, a sixteen-foot pole, — the length of 
an ordinary log. Stand the pole against the base of a 
tree. Retreat a few paces and note how high it comes on 
the tree and how many times it could be contained in the 
height of the tree, or to the top of the top log. Together 
with this practice, estimate the diameters at the various 
log lengths. In this way a very fair idea of the number 
of logs a tree contains can be reached. When cutting 
timber, this process should be checked by first estimating 
the timber carefully and then measuring the log lengths 
and diameters on the felled tree. 

The next thing that must be learned is the thickness 
of the bark of the different species at different heights. 
It varies considerably in thickness from the ground to the 
top of the first log, but above that it is fairly uniform. 
This can best be learned from the observation and measure- 
ment of felled trees. The testing of the bark of standing 
trees at breast height is not a good test. In estimating 
the diameter of logs inside the bark, do not forget to double 
the thickness of the bark before subtracting it. 

When the eye has been trained in this way, the actual 
work of estimating may be started. The method used will 
vary somewhat with the size of the tract and the purpose 
of the owner. The smaller the tract the more accurately 
the work can be done. 



202 The Farm Woodlot 

In a small woodlot, all the logs of merchantable size 
should be estimated and recorded on the tally sheet. 
This may easily be accomplished by one man. He needs 
no other equipment than a tally board and something 
with which he can mark the trees he has estimated to 
prevent taking them twice. This may be a hatchet for 
light blazing ; a scratcher for scratching the bark or a 
piece of chalk, — probably the last would be the easiest 
to handle. 

Starting at one corner of the woodlot, he runs a strip 
along one of the boundaries, estimating the number, 
length and diameter of the logs in each tree and recording 
them under the proper species on his tally sheet. He must 
remember to allow for a reasonable stump and avoid the 
bad crooks. He marks each tree, as he estimates it, 
where the mark will be most conspicuous on his return 
trip. When the end of the woodlot is reached, he faces 
about and runs another similar strip next to the first. 
In this way, he estimates the logs in every tree in the 
woodlot and his tally sheet contains the data needed to 
calculate his total crop of merchantable logs. 

Few woodlots are too large to permit of this method, 
but when they are, one of the following methods may be 
used. The problem is to estimate a certain definite 
percentage of the trees. This may be done in a number of 
ways. If the area of the tract is known, the number of 
acres necessary to make up the required percentage can 
be calculated and estimated. The acres estimated should 
be scattered evenly over the tract, so that a good average 
is secured and not bunched up in any one place. There 
are dozens of mathematical methods for distributing these 



Forest Mensuration 203 

acres evenly, but it is just as well for each man to make 
up one to suit himself. 

If the area of the tract is not definitely known, and it 
is not desirable to go to the trouble of a survey, a fairly 
accurate percentage may be secured by the proper spacing 
of the four-rod strips. If the strips are four rods apart, 
they will contain 50 per cent, twelve rods apart 25 per cent, 
sixteen rods apart 20 per cent, 36 rods apart 10 per cent, 
76 rods apart 5 per cent and 156 rods apart 2| per cent. 
The larger the percentage taken, the more accurate the 
estimate will be, and less, than 25 per cent should never 
be taken on any woodlot. 

When this data has been obtained, the field work is 
completed and the remainder of the work must be done 
in the office. This work consists of converting the logs 
into board measure by means of a log scale. The most 
widely used log scales are printed in the appendix. The 
process is as follows : first, look up the log scale used in 
that district in which the logs are to be sold. Turning to 
the column of the log scale representing the logs of the 
length in the first column of the tally sheet, look up the 
first diameter appearing on the tally sheet and write down 
opposite to it the number of board feet given in the scale 
for that diameter. This represents the number of board 
feet that may be cut from a log of this length and diameter. 
Multiply this by the number of logs of this class and write 
it down in the next column to the right. This must be 
done for every diameter of the different lengths appearing 
on the tally sheet. The sum of each column will represent 
the total number of board feet in the logs of certain length 
and species. The sum of the totals of all the columns will 



204 The Farm Woodlot 

give the total number of board feet contained in all the 
logs recorded on the tally sheet, if this represents only a 
percentage of the whole area correct for 100 per cent. 

One more thing is necessary. Not all these logs will 
be sound. The percentage of rot will vary with the 
locality and the species. This percentage of waste for 
each species can most easily and most accurately be 
secured by careful inquiries at the nearest saw mill. 
This percentage of "cull," as it is called, must then be 
subtracted from the total of each species. 

The farmer is then in a position to sell his timber and 
drive an equitable bargain. He knows just how much 
sound timber of each species he has for sale, and the 
proportion of long lengths. He must, however, remember 
that his figures are only an estimate and be prepared for 
a reasonable difference between his figures and those 
of the buyer, which are also based on an estimate. 

It may be well to describe a common method used by 
cruisers on large tracts of low value. It is, like most of 
the cruising methods, based on the estimation of sample 
areas. The unit sample area is usually the acre. These 
samples must be located according to some system, for 
if the cruiser relies wholly upon his judgment, he is apt 
to place the average too high. For example : the cruiser 
starts from the southeast corner of the forty, the common 
unit in all large tracts, and paces west 20 rods, then north 
20 rods. With this point as a center, he estimates all 
the trees in a radius of 118 feet, thus covering one acre. 
He then paces 40 rods west and 40 north and repeats the 
operation. Twenty rods north and 20 west brings him 
to the northwest corner of the forty where he can check 



Forest Mensuration 205 

up his pacing. This estimate of 2 acres in every 40 is 
5 per cent of the whole and the estimates obtained on 
these two sample acres should be multiplied by 20 to get 
the estimate of the 40. Some judgment is necessary 
to see that these samples do not fall in timber too far above 
or below the average. It is this element of uncertainty 
that makes the partial estimates unsatisfactory, especially 
with the beginner whose judgment is not sufficiently 
trained. 



CHAPTER IX 
FOREST UTILIZATION 

The farmer may get comparatively little use from the 
timber on the woodlot and render the future crop almost 
worthless by poor judgment and careless handling. It 
is a common practice for the farmer to cut his timber 
without any thought to its usefulness or value. He goes 
to his woodlot for his winter supply of firewood. Oak, 
hickory and maple make the best fire ; and the largest 
and straightest trees make the most wood for the least 
work. It follows naturally that the best trees are first put 
in the cordwood pile. The result, which does not enter 
into his calculations at the time, is disastrous. Not 
only could these trees have been put to a much more valu- 
able use, but their removal means a depletion of the better 
species and ideal conditions for the reproduction of the 
poorer species which are left. We must remember that 
it is the kind of seed trees which we leave that determines 
the composition of the future stand. If nothing but weed 
trees are left, they will be quick to take advantage of 
the situation, and the next crop will be nearly all weeds. 

The owner should consider carefully this selection in 
his cuttings. He should have an eye to the market for 
different wood products in his locality and cater to the 
most profitable. Of course this is possible only when the 
woodlot is of considerable size and more than sufficient 

206 



Forest Utilization 207 

for the family supply. But even when firewood is the only 
product, the same care should be taken in cutting to 
keep the stand in good condition. 

In the older hardwood districts in whiclr^here are 
furniture factories, there are several species which are 
exceedingly valuable, especially the older trees. These 
are the white oak, black walnut, black cherry and yellow 
poplar. Such trees should be valued very carefully before 
they are sold, and they should be sold as individual trees, 
never by the acre or thousand feet. The buyer should be 
brought to the grounds and asked to place a value on the 
tree after a careful inspection. If possible, several buyers 
should be made to bid for the trees. The tree should 
then be cut according to the buyer's direction. If the 
tree is cut without this precaution, and the logs hauled 
to the factory to be sold, the special value of the tree may 
have been destroyed. In the black walnut, for example, 
the particularly valuable parts are the stump and the 
curly grain near the branches. Unless special directions 
are obtained for the cutting, these parts are likely to be 
lost. Some of these trees, worth more than a hundred 
dollars, areignorantly cut up into firewood. However, it 
must not be thought that all trees of this species are so 
valuable ; it is only the large, old trees, and even some of 
those have no special value beyond being good lumber. 

FOR CONSTRUCTION TIMBERS 

Different requirements are necessary for timbers to 
be used in outside, or exposed, and inside construction. 
When the wood is exposed to the weather or more partic- 
ularly to contact with the ground, durability in these 



208 The Farm Woodlot 

situations must be added to its other qualifications. For 
building purposes timber should be fairly strong, especially 
for dimension stuff, hold a nail well, work fairly well with 
tools, and hold its shape, when once seasoned. Accord- 
ing to these specifications, pine makes the best construc- 
tion timber that we have, spruce next, and hemlock and 
tamarack are good substitutes for dimension sizes. Among 
the hardwoods, red oak, maple, white elm, basswood, 
ash and cottonwood are good for inside work, white oak, 
red elm, mulberry, catalpa and black walnut for outside. 
Of course any timber that can be used outside can also be 
used inside. Trees of a size and form to produce such 
timbers should be kept for this purpose, for even though 
they may not be needed on the farm, they will bring a 
good price as saw logs at any mill. 

FENCE POSTS AND RAILS 

The matter of the selection of fence posts is dealt with 
under the chapter on Wood Preservation and it is necessary 
to add here only a few details on the sizes and methods of 
manufacture. 

The standard length for a post in most sections is seven 
feet. They may be a few inches longer, but never shorter. 
If they are cut in the autumn or winter, they dry more 
slowly and check less than when cut in the spring or 
summer ; consequently they are stronger. They should 
be peeled as soon as cut and carefully piled so that they 
are not in contact with the ground and are exposed to a 
free circulation of air. If the post is to be driven in, the 
top should be cut off square ; otherwise it should be cut 
at an angle. In either case, the cut should be smooth, 



Forest Utilization 209 

preferably made with an ax, in order that the water may 
run off readily and not soak into the top of the post. If 
the top of the post is painted when green, the checking 
of the end will be largely prevented. 

Posts can often be split to advantage. If a considerable 
portion is heartwood, a six-inch post can be halved, a 
seven and a half inch post quartered. These are light 
posts and can be used only as fillers in a fence between 
stronger ones. Chestnut and ash can readily be split 
with an ax, other species are better sawn. If the posts 
are to be sold, they will find a more ready market if 
bright in color and trimmed to a uniform length. Posts 
for sale should always be sorted into size classes, — three, 
four, five, six inch, and so on, and the round and split 
posts separated. 

The wire fence has almost entirely displaced the old 
post and rail, but there are still a few districts in which 
they are used, — mostly in the chestnut country. Chest- 
nut is by far the best wood for this purpose, because it is 
so readilj^ split and is so durable. White oak is also used, 
and occasionally locust. 

RAILROAD TIES 

Railroad ties are best made of the same kind of wood as 
fence posts, durability and the holding power of the 
spikes being the principal requirements. Cedar is about 
the only fence post wood which should not be used for this 
purpose ; it is too soft and has not the necessary strength. 
Nevertheless many are sold, especially to branch roads. 

Before cutting any railroad ties, the specifications of 
the buyer should be carefully studied. They may be 



210 The Farm Woodlot 

secured from any agent. Most companies classify their 
ties into "firsts" and "seconds." If the specifications are 
not secured and carefully considered, many seconds will 
be cut that could just as well have been made firsts. In 
hewing ties in a woodlot, it is better to do all the hewing in 
one place so that the chips may easily be piled and burned. 
Most roads also classify ties into hewed and sawed and 
make a difference in the price. 

IMPLEMENT PARTS 

For farm implement repairs wood is needed that is 
strong, hard, tough and elastic. The best woods for this 
purpose are hickory, ironwood, oak and elm in the order 
in which they are mentioned. Pieces for this purpose 
should be cut, peeled and stored under cover where 
there will be a free circulation of air so that they may 
become thoroughly seasoned. Large pieces should be 
split into quarters ; this prevents season (Fig. 49) checks 
and hurries the process. This adds very greatly to their 
strength. Care should be taken in selecting the pieces 
to, see that the grain is straight and free from knots. 
Proper seasoning requires from three months to a year, 
according to the thickness of the piece. Every farmer 
should keep a supply of such pieces on hand so that he 
will have seasoned wood when he needs it, and not be 
obliged to use green pieces of inferior quality. The second 
growth of these species, of small size, especially sprout 
growth, is superior to the older timber for these purposes. 
It is tougher, less brittle and more elastic, will bend 
more to a strain without breaking and stand harder jars. 

Stock for handles should have the same qualities as 



Forest Utilization 211 

the wood used for agricultural implements. When this 
stock is cut for sale, it is important to know the specifi- 
cations of the factory, that the proper lengths and sizes 
may be obtained. It is very easy to spoil a large quantity 




'Fig. 49. — Season checks in hardwood logs. 

of such stock by cutting it even a fraction of an inch too 
short. This makes a good market for the products of a 
plantation because such small sizes can be utilized. 

FIREWOOD 

Some species make better firewood than others. Gen- 
erally speaking, the heavier a wood is, the more heat 
it will produce to the cubic foot burned. Some woods 



212 The Farm Woodlot 

burn more readily than others. As a rule, the coniferous 
woods ignite more easily and burn more readily than the 
hardwoods, but the hardwoods produce hot coals that 
are ideal for cooking. This divides the woods into the 
natural classes of coniferous kindlings and hardwoods 
for a steady fire. 

Unfortunately the woods which make the most valuable 
timbers also make the best firewood, and many a valuable 
saw log is cut up into cord wood. The straight trunks of 
these species should be set aside for saw logs. At least 
a third of the tree would still be left for firewood and those 
parts, too crooked or too small for lumber, make excellent 
cordwood, especially for home use, when more or less odd 
lengths make very little difference. 

The process of selecting trees for firewood should 
roughly follow this general outline : 

Decide how much cordwood is to be cut. 

Select first the old trees that show signs of rot or have 
suffered some injury. Take first from these trees saw 
logs, ties, fence posts or any other valuable pieces for which 
there is a market. Cut the rest into cordwood. Of course, 
if there is no market for any of these products, it is sense- 
less to save them and the whole tree should be put ijtito 
cordwood. 

Select next the weed trees of the forest, the trees that 
have no special value. They may not make particularly 
good firewood, but they will burn well enough when 
mixed with some better wood. They should be removed, 
to keep them from seeding up the ground and to give the 
better species a chance to reproduce themselves. 

If any more trees are needed, they should be taken from 



Forest Utilization 213 

the most crowded stands. The directions for this are 
given under "thinnings." 

Do not cut too much. There are other winters coming. 

LOGGING 

Winter is the best time to log, especially for the farmer 
who is busy with his crops during the other parts of the 
year. The snow and ice in the North, which make sleigh 
hauling possible anywhere in the woods, and the freedom 
from insects in all regions, make the winter months 
preferable. The woodlots vary so greatly in size and in 
the character of the timber that no definite scheme of log- 
ging can be laid down. Only a few hints of general ap- 
plication can be given. 

Felling 

A tree can be felled in almost any direction except 
directly opposite to the way it is leaning, and even this 
can often be accomplished by means of wedges if the tree 
does not lean too much. First the direction of felling 
should be chosen, so that there is no danger of its lodging, 
being propped up by another tree, — or damaging any 
thrifty young growth. Care should also be taken that 
the trunk does not fall across a rock or large log. This 
will often break or shatter the trunk. It is, however, 
well when possible to have the middle of the trunk sup- 
ported in some way so that the saw may not bind in cutting 
the trunk into logs. On a steep hillside, the trees should 
be thrown across the hill, not down it. The trunk is 
then more easily "broken up," and is less likely to be 
broken. 



214 The Farm Woodlot 

When the direction has been decided upon, cut with an 
ax a notch on that side of the tree. In conifers it need 
not exceed more than two or three inches in depth; in 
hardwoods, it should extend to the center of the tree, 
and "cut the pig tail." This prevents the tree from split- 
ting up the trunk and "kicking back," an accident quite 
common in hardwoods. It is always dangerous to stand 
directly back of the saw in cutting hardwoods. Conifers 
occasionally do the same thing. This notch should be 
as nearly as possible horizontal and clean cut. It should 
be made as close as practicable to the root collar, for the 
wood in the stump is the best part of the tree. It also 
aids in reproduction when sprout growth is depended 
upon. 

The outer bark should then be chipped off around the 
trunk a few inches above the notch because this bark 
greatly retards the saw. The saw should be started two 
or three inches above and opposite the notch. Care must 
be taken to keep the cut straight, or the saw will bind. 
Do not press too hard on the saw, and do not jerk it. 
The motion should be regular, smooth and with just 
enough pressure to keep the saw constantly in contact 
with the wood. If it is desired to have the tree fall exactly 
in the direction of the notch, the cut should be kept parallel 
to it; if it is to be swerved to the right, the left corner 
should be cut through first, and vice versa. If the saw 
binds in a large tree, wedges, either iron or hardwood, 
can be driven in the kerf back of it, care being taken 
that the wedge does not touch the saw. In a small 
tree, the pressure can usually be relieved by pushing with 
the hand against the trunk above the saw. Never try to 



Forest Utilization 215 

wrench a saw loose. When the tree starts to fall, remove 
the saw, and step back from the tree. Keep an eye 
aloft for falling limbs either from the falling tree or its 
neighbors. If the tree shows a tendency to lean back 
on the wedges, stop the saw when within a couple of 
inches of the notch, take off one handle, remove the saw 
and force the tree over with the wedges. Keep a sharp 
look-out in this case, for there is always danger that the 
wood may give way and the tree fall backwards. When a 
tree starts to fall, stand comparatively near the trunk, 
it is the safest place, then move back to avoid any jump- 
ing of the butt. 

Dividing the log 

The tree once felled, it is necessary to mark off the log 
lengths. The purpose for which the logs are to be used 
must be kept carefully in mind. As a general rule, long 
lengths are more valuable than short ones. However, 
two straight short logs are more valuable than one long 
crooked one. Unless for some special purpose, logs 
are usually cut either 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 or 18 feet long, except 
in the Adirondacks where odd lengths are the rule. Short 
lengths are cut more in the hardwoods ; conifers are seldom 
cut less than 12 feet. 

First measure the total length of the stem that can be 
used for logs and so divide it that the whole stem is 
utilized. In doing this it must be remembered that a log 
must be cut at least three inches longer than the required 
length. Cut the butt log 18 feet if it is straight ; if not, 
it is better to make it shorter. A considerable crook 
can be avoided by cutting right at the middle of the bend. 



216 The Farm Woodlot 

Too large a bend must be "butted" out. When the logs 
are marked, clean away the bark at that point and saw 
off the logs. In sawing a horizontal stick the weight of 
the saw is sufficient ; do not bear down on it. If the saw 
binds, wedge as before. It is also necessary sometimes to 
prop up the under side of the trunk. The limbs can be 
trimmed off either before or after the logs are cut. This 
will depend on how the logs open up. They should be 
cut smoothly, close to the trunk, not left to catch in the 
ground when the log is snaked out. 

Skidding 

This is dragging the logs to the place where they are to 
be loaded. The method of skidding must be adapted to 
the conditions, and there are about as many methods 
as there are different conditions. Here the methods can 
be only briefly sketched. 

Two general divisions may be made : (1) when small 
skidways are made in the woods in any convenient place ; 
(2) when larger skidways are made on the road. 

The first method is used when the logging is done in 
the summer time on hard open ground so that a wagon 
can be taken anywhere in the woods, or when there is 
not enough snow in the winter to prevent the sleighs 
from leaving the road. One or two, rarely three or four, 
loads are put in each skid way. This means that the 
logs need be skidded only a short distance. Under these 
circumstances, the logs are usually "snaked" to the skid- 
way. In snaking, a pair of skidding tongs are attached 
to a whiffle-tree, one horse for small logs, two for large, 
and the logs are dragged along the ground. A collar 



Forest Utilization 217 

chain is sometimes used in place of the tongs, and a farmer 
would be more likely to have the chain. It is looped 
around the large end of the log, and the loose ends put 
over the hook on the whiffle-tree. It is not quite so 
quickly or easily handled as the tongs. In placing these 
small skidways, they should be located where a load of 
logs can be most easily collected and at the same time 
be accessible for the wagon or sleigh. It is cheaper and 
more easily handled than the large skidway when the 
ground is in the proper condition, but it never pays to 
go off the road for a load and get stuck. This is frequently 
done when the nature of the ground has not been suffi- 
ciently considered. 

When there is deep snow, or the ground is soft, sleighs 
or wagons should not leave the road, and it becomes 
necessary to skid the logs to the road-side. This means a 
longer distance to skid than when small skidways are 
scattered through the woods, and the process of snaking 
logs, one by one, is too slow. A single sled or "go-devil" 
is used. The large ends of several logs are rolled onto the 
sled by means of cant hooks, and chained fast. The 
other ends drag. This method pays up to a quarter of a 
mile. If there is very much timber to come out, it pays 
to extend the logging road when the distance becomes 
greater than that. Sometimes, usually in summer logging, 
a heavy, forked branch, or "lizard," is substituted for the 
sled and used in the same way. 

These skidways should be located on the main road 
and, if possible, so located that the bank at that point is on 
a level with, or slightly above, the sleigh or wagon bunks. 
This facilitates loading. All brush should be removed. A 



218 The Farm Woodlot 

couple of long poles, possibly three, should then be laid 
at right angles to the road, and near enough together 
to catch the ends of the shortest logs. If there are a 
great many logs, the hauling will be made much easier 
by putting the long and short logs in separate skidways. 
As the logs are rolled from the sleds, they are rolled out 
onto these poles. When the first tier is completed, slender 
poles are laid on top of them, so that the logs of the second 
tier can easily be rolled over on top of them. These poles 
are pulled back after each log is rolled out to keep them 
from becoming tied down. When the skidway becomes 
so high that it is difficult to get logs on it and would be 
difficult to load from the top of, it is better to make 
another skidway. Never waste your time by building up 
a skidway that it will be difficult to tear down. 

Hauling 

If there are only a few logs and the distance is not over 
half a mile, it will probably pay to haul them on the skid- 
ding sled, or on two skidding sleds chained together. It 
would not pay with a lizard. If there are many logs, it 
pays to load them on a regular log sleigh or wagon. The 
condition of the road will govern the size of the load. 

If the skidway is above the bunks, the logs can be rolled 
down without any apparatus ; if not, the cross haul is 
used. Skids, made of stout poles about six feet long, 
and fitted with an iron hook in the end, and the other 
end beveled, are hooked into the iron bands oir the ends of 
the bunks so as to form a rollway for the logs. One end 
of the loading chain is hooked to the reach, the other end 
passed under the log and back across the sleigh or wagon. 



Forest Utilization 219 

The team, the leaders usually being used for this work, 
is backed up to the opposite side of the wagon. The free 
end of the chain is hooked to the whiffle-tree, preferably 
with a grab hook that can be released by a lever. This 
avoids the danger of upsetting the load if the horses 
cannot be stopped. When the team is driven out at right 
angles to the road, the log is rolled up the skids onto the 
bunks. Two horses in this way can handle almost any 
logs that are cut in the Northeast. One horse can handle 
small logs. When the log is in place, the chain is unhooked 
and put around another log while the team is being brought 
back into position. A little faster work is possible if the 
chain unhooks in the middle instead of at the whifHe-tree. 
The horses soon learn the system and one man alone can 
put on a load with a well-trained team. When the load 
is in place, it is bound fast with the loading chain. Some- 
times a binder pole is used. 

From four to eight thousand feet make a good load on an 
iced road on which there are no heavy grades. On a 
heavy down grade, straw put in the ruts will act as a 
brake. In wagon hauling, or on snow roads, from one 
thousand to fifteen hundred feet is about the limit. 

When the logs have been removed, the other marketable 
products should be taken from the remaining portion of 
the tree : ties, posts or firewood. 

THE CHIEF USES OF OUR COMMON WOODS 

Yellow poplar. — Panels ; flooring ; molding ; clap- 
boarding ; sheathing ; shingles ; siding on railroad cars ; 
interior finish of Pullman cars; coffins; bodies of auto- 
mobiles ; carriages and sleighs ; sides of farm wagon beds ; 



220 The Farm Woodlot 

woodenware ; bungs; slack barrels and tobacco hogs- 
heads ; backing, tops and sides for pianos ; veneers ; 
boxes, especially biscuit boxes and cigar boxes ; scroll 
saw work ; wood carving ; wood burning ; matches ; 
excelsior ; paper pulp ; porch columns ; hat forms ; cores 
for veneer furniture and for interior finish. 

Basswood. — Mirror and picture backs ; drawers and 
backs of furniture ; molding ; woodenware ; panels and 
bodies of carriages ; ceiling ; wooden boxes ; inner soles of 
shoes ; cooperage heading ; slack barrel staves ; butter 
churns ; fine carving ; papier-mache ; paper pulp. The 
flowers are used for tea ; the inner bark of some species 
for coarse cordage and matting and glue brushes. 

Buckeye. — Artificial limbs ; woodenware ; paper pulp ; 
wooden hats ; fine wood carving ; pyrography. 

Maple. — ■ Furniture ; flooring ; sugar barrels ; mantels ; 
runners of sleighs ; peavy handles ; ox yokes ; ax handles ; 
sides, backs and bridges of violins ; bicycle rims ; wooden- 
ware ; wooden shovels ; shoe pegs and lasts ; gun stocks ; 
saddle trees ; teeth of wooden gear wheels ; piano keys 
and hammers ; wood split pulleys ; framework of ma- 
chinery ; ship building ; paddles ; maple sugar ; sur- 
veyors' implements ; plane stocks ; wooden types ; fau- 
cets ; clothespins ; charcoal ; acetate of lime ; wood 
alcohol. 

Sumach. — Tanning ; dyeing and dressing skins ; Jap- 
anese lacquer work. 

Black locust. — PoUce clubs ; fence posts ; insulator 
pins ; construction work (bridges) ; turnery ; wheel- 
wright work ; tree nails (pins) ; ship building (ribs) ; 
hubs of wheels (automobiles) ; house foundation. 



Forest Utilization 221 

Black cherry. — Fine furniture ; cabinet work ; interior 
finish ; tool handles ; surveyors' instruments. 

Dogwood. — Tool handles ; spools, bobbins ; shuttles ; 
mauls ; wheel hubs ; machinery bearings ; engraving 
blocks. 

Black gum. — Heavy hubs ; rollers in glass factories ; 
mangles ; ox yokes ; stock of sledge hammers in steam 
forges ; veneers for berry baskets and butter dishes ; 
slack barrels ; in cheap furniture for backing and drawers ; 
barn flooring ; excelsior. 

White ash. — Wagons and carriages (poles, shafts, 
frames) ; interior woodwork ; inner parts of furniture ; 
mantelpieces; sporting goods (bats, etc.), oars and gym- 
nastic bars ; lances ; agricultural implements ; tennis 
racquets ; snowshoes ; skis ; wooden pulleys ; barrel 
hoops ; pork barrel staves ; baskets ; dairy packings 
(firkins, tubs, etc.) ; tool handles. 

Sassafras. — Light skiffs ; fence posts ; rails ; cooper- 
age; insect proof boxes; ox yokes. Roots yield oil of 
sassafras. 

Elms. — Wheel stock, especially hubs ; buckboard beds ; 
neck yokes ; fence posts ; ribs of small boats ; top spans 
in covered railroad cars ; railroad ties ; tongues for sleigh 
runners ; saddle trees ; flooring ; exported for inner 
lining of boats ; butcher blocks and churns (butter) ; 
cheese boxes ; furniture ; sugar and flour barrel staves ; 
patent coiled hoops for slack cooperage ; agricultural 
implements ; bicycle rims ; basket making ; gun stocks ; 
frame timber, of piano cases ; wheelbarrows ; hockey 
sticks ; construction of battle ships. 

Sycamore. — Furniture (lining of drawers) ; plug to- 



222 The Farm Woodlot 

bacco boxes ; butchers' blocks ; interior finish ; beehives 
(hollow log sections) ; butter and lard trays ; wooden 
bowls. 

Walnut. — Interior finish ; furniture ; gun stocks ; tool 
handles ; cabinet work ; boat building. 

Hickory. — Axe handles ; wagon stock (especially 
whiffle-trees ; neck yokes ; spokes, tongues, felloes, axles) ; 
buckboards ; rustic furniture ; barrel hoops ; screws ; 
mallets ; parts of textile machinery ; farm implements ; 
wooden rails (top) ; baskets ; bows of ox yokes ; boat 
building; hickory bark for flavoring sugar (to imitate 
maple sirup). 

Oaks (white and burr). — Furniture ; wagon and car- 
riage stock; especially spokes, felloes, hubs, tongues, 
bolsters ; sandboards ; reaches ; brake bars ; axletrees ; 
whifl[ie-trees ; railroad ties ; freight cars (framework) ; ship 
building ; house building and interior finish ; shingles ; 
agricultural implements ; bridge building ; mining timber ; 
wine, beer, and whisky barrels ; parquet flooring ; stair- 
cases ; splint wood baskets ; hogshead and barrel hoops ; 
bark used for dyeing. 

Chestnut oak. — Bark used for tanning ; fencing ; 
bridges ; railroad ties ; substitute for white oak, but 
objectionable in tight cooperage. 

Red oak. — Shingles ; furniture ; interior finish ; tight 
and slack cooperage ; railroad ties. 

Chestnut. — Tanning extract ; coffins ; furniture (cores 
of veneer furniture and doors) ; interior finish ; shingles ; 
fencing railroad ties ; sheathing ; Jacob staff for com- 
passes ; bridge building (trestles) ; telephone poles ; 
backing of piano veneers ; slack barrel hoops ; staves. 



Forest Utilization 223 

Beech. — Wood alcohol ; wood ashes ; charcoal ; shoe 
lasts ; plane blocks ; clothespins ; handles ; wooden 
bowls ; horse collars (hames) ; parquet strips ; flooring ; 
street paving ; railroad ties ; sugar barrels ; furniture 
made from veneers, or bent after steaming ; chairs. 

Hop hornbeam. — Posts ; levers ; tool handles ; wagon 
brakes ; shoes ; wedges. 

White birch. — • Toothpicks ; shoe pegs and lasts ; wood 
pulp ; spools ; clothespins ; screws ; flooring ; veneers ; 
furniture ; bobbins and spindles ; wooden skewers ; home- 
made barrel hoops. 

Yellow birch. — Furniture (usually mahogany finish) ; 
match boxes; wheel hubs; tool handles; buttons; 
brush backs ; shoe pegs ; clothespins ; sugar barrels ; dry 
distillation for wood vinegar, wood alcohol, charcoal. 

Black birch. — Imitation cherry and mahogany furni- 
ture ; ship building ; bark distilled for oil of winter- 
green. 

Cottonwood. — Boxes ; wood pulp and fiber ; slack 
barrels ; woodenware ; flooring ; excelsior ; cores for 
veneers in organs and pianos ; matches ; building lumber ; 
furniture ; wagon beds ; turnery ; fence boards. 

White cedar. — ■ Posts ; fencing ; telegraph poles ; rail- 
road ties ; tanks and buckets ; shingles ; street paving ; 
boats. 

Red cedar. — Tanks ; posts ; buckets ; telephone poles ; 
chests ; pencils ; interior finish. 

White pine. — House building and finishing ; boxes and 
crates ; sash, doors, blinds ; shingles ; backing of fine 
veneers ; excelsior ; matches ; laths ; woodenware ; slack 
barrels ; framing of machinery ; furniture ; patterns for 



224 The Farm Woodlot 

casting metals ; ship masts ; baled shavings for filtering 
gas, bedding for horses, packing for crockery. 

Jack pine. — Ties and pihng ; cheap lumber ; boxes ; 
laths ; wood pulp. 

Norway pine. — Lumber generally ; ship building ; con- 
struction ; flooring ; masts ; piles of wharves ; covering, 
lining, siding, flooring and sills of railroad cars ; railroad 
ties. 

Spruce. — Chemical fiber and paper pulp (down to five 
inches in diameter) ; matches ; construction ; posts ; 
railroad ties ; fresh-water ship building ; clapboards ; 
flooring ; ceiling ; step-ladders ; sounding boards (from 
butt logs) ; oars ; paddles ; spars ; wharf piles ; telegraph 
poles ; toys ; wood type ; butter buckets ; slack cooper- 
age ; wooden thread (for mattings) ; chewing gum ; 
vanillin. In Europe spruce bark is used for tanning. 

Hemlock. — Lumber ; dimension stuff ; construction 
timbers ; shingles ; railroad ties ; fencing ; paper pulp - 
and fiber ; bark for tanning. 

Tamarack. — Fence posts ; telegraph poles ; soda 
fiber ; ships' knees ; railroad ties. 



CHAPTER X 
BY-PRODUCTS OF THE NORTHERN WOODLOT 

By-products of timber-cropping are very many. They 
are the products other than timber and wood. The tur- 
pentine and rosin industry of the South, the making of 
many medicinal extracts and the securing of dyes are 
good examples. In some cases, as with the turpentine 
industry, the by-product may be actually the most impor- 
tant product commercially. The secondary or by-prod- 
ucts of the farm woodlot are not many. The most im- 
portant ones in the North may be mentioned, however. 

MAPLE SIRUP AND SUGAR 

Practically every woodlot, whether natural or planted, 
contains some maple trees that may be used in the pro- 
duction of maple sirup and sugar for the home. The 
early settlers obtained all of their sugar from this source, 
and the Indians made sugar from the maples long before 
this country was inhabited by the white man. To-day 
maple sirup and sugar are delicacies and command such 
a high price that substitutes with an artificial maple flavor 
have come into use. Comparatively small amounts of 
maple' sirup and sugar are now produced for the market, 
but it is not unusual to find many rural families producing 
sufficient of this delicacy for home consumption from the 
maple of their own woodlot, or even from the shade maples 
Q 225 



226 The Farm Woodlot 

in the yard. A few weeks of work in the woodlot in 
early spring during sap .time afford a pleasant diversion 
from the ordinary farm routine and may yield consider- 
able revenue as well as add a choice product to the home 
table. In 1910 the output of maple products was over 
4,000,000 gallons of sirup and over 14,000,000 pounds of 
sugar. The total value of these products was over 
$5,100,000. Vermont and New York produced over 70 
per cent of this product. These two states, together with 
Pennsylvania, Ohio, New Hampshire, Maryland, and 
Michigan, have produced over 90 per cent of the total 
production of maple sugar since 1880. 

THE SUGAR MAPLE 

All of the native maple trees produce a sweet sap that 
may be used in making sirup and sugar. The quaUty 
of sap, or the degree of its sweetness, differs with the 
various species. There are at least three species that may 
be used in the production of sirup and sugar. Of these 
the sugar maple (Acer saccharum) is the best and is the tree 
that produces the sweetest sap and consequently the bulk 
of the maple products that go on the market. This species 
is very widely distributed and may be found in every 
native woodlot, as well as among the trees planted for 
shade and decorative purposes. A variety of this maple 
known as the black maple (Acer saccharum var. nigrum), 
occurring largelj^ throughout the range of the sugar maple, 
is said to be the best sap-producer. This maple is very 
hardy and occurs extensively in the western range of the 
species. The red maple (Acer ruhrum) is very widely 
distributed and is an abundant sap-producer. It pro- 



By-products of the Northern Woodlot 227 

duces more sap than the sugar maple, but yields less 
sirup and sugar. The silver maple (Acer saccharinum) 
yields an abundance of sweet sap that in quahty or sugar 
content is about the same as that of the red maple. The 
red and silver maples are considered sugar-producing trees 
mostly in those regions in which the sugar maple does 
not occur. It is very common to find these three species 
being used for making sirup and sugar, when they occur 
in mixture. It is not necessary to have a large number 
of trees to make an operation worth while. A dozen 
good trees will yield sufficient sap during a good season to 
warrant tapping them. It is not uncommon to find farmers 
tapping three or four trees, and even one tree, when it 
happens to be a large tree and is a real sugar maple. Wheix 
properly tapped and cared for, a shade maple in the yard 
may yield a large amount of rich sap without any injury 
to the tree. 

SEASON 

The period of "sugar weather" varies with the locality 
and season. Usually the sap begins moving in the trees 
earlier than is generally realized. It is a wise poHcy 
to get an early start so as to be prepared for the season 
should it come in a rush, as it sometimes does. Sap begins 
to flow as soon as the temperature fluctuates above and 
below the freezing point, or 32° F. Frosty nights and 
warm days indicate good sugar weather. Generally the 
season begins about March 1 in southern sections and 
later to the northward. It may begin two weeks earlier 
and continue for a week or a month, depending on weather 
conditions. 



228 



The Farm Woodlot 



EQUIPMENT 

When a large sugar bush is operated, it is necessary to 
have considerable sirup and sugar making equipment. 
Ordinarily the farmer has sufficient equipment on hand 

that he can use for 
^*^^^' this purpose, so 
that, together Avith 
what he can readily 
make, there need 
be little or no 
outlay. A sharp, 
clean-cutting auger 
is necessary. A 
brace Avith a half 
inch or three- 
fourths inch bit is 
very convenient. 
Spouts or spiles can 
be home-made from 
any convenient 
wood and will an- 
swer the purpose 
very well. When 
only a few trees are 
tapped, the spouts 
may be made from 
the common elder 
by removing the 
pith. The sap pails can usually be secured about the farm 
house for the short time necessary and may consist of tin, 




Fig. 50. — Sugar-making utensils: 1, sugar 
mold ; 2, 4, sap buckets ; 3, gathering pail ; 
5, skimmer ; 6, cover for sap bucket ; 
6 a, cross section of same ; 7, gathering tank ; 
8, 9, 10, sap spouts. 



By-products of the Northern Woodlot 229 



wooden, and earthenware. They should be provided with 
some kind of a cover. Metal spouts with hooks attached 
for hanging buckets can be purchased, but this is not nec- 
essary, since Hght home-made spouts can be used and the 
buckets may stand on 
the ground or blocked 
in a firm position. 

TAPPING THE TREES 

If the sap containers 
are to stand on the 
ground, the trees must 
be tapped just a little 
higher than the rim of 
the bucket. If metal 
spouts with hooks at- 
tached are used, the tap- 
ping may be done two 
or three feet from the 
ground, or at any con- 
venient height. As a 
rule, trees should be 
tapped on the sunny 
side. Holes on the north 
side are said to flow 

longer than holes on the south side. Before tapping, all 
loose bark should be brushed from the tree where the hole 
is to be bored. The hole should slant upward enough to 
drain well and not over two inches deep. All auger chips 
must be removed. For the sake of the trees, it is best 
to tap only one place in a tree. Two or three spouts are 




Fig. 51. — A tapped tree with pails in 
place. 



230 The Farm Woodlot 

frequently placed in one tree so close together that the sap 
will flow ijito one })ucket. This is not advisable, since it 
ma}'- injure the tree. Only the very largest trees should 
have more than one spout. Small trees should not be 
tapped. 

COLLECTING SAP 

When a few trees only are tapped, the sap may be collected 
in buckets and carried to the farm house. When a large 
number of trees are tapped, a tank holding two or more 
barrels and hauled on a stoneboat can be used. One or 
more clean, wooden barrels will serve the same purpose. 
The sap should be gathered each day. The sooner and 
faster the sap is boiled after it leaves the tree, the better 
is the sirup. 

BOILING THE SAP 

A large sugar bush will require a boiling house with 
special boiling and evaporating apparatus. The average 
farmer's woodlot will, as a rule, have less than one hun- 
dred trees suitable for tapping, so that the sap can easily 
be boiled over a stove in an outhouse, or in a covered kettle 
in a shed. An open shed with a roof is not necessary, 
but in bad weather it is a great convenience. The kettle 
should be kept covered so as to keep windblown ashes 
and dust out of the boiling sap. Boiling is frequently 
done in the woods by using open kettles or pans. 

MAKING SIRUP 

In boihng, the impurities rise to the surface in the form 
of a scum which should be removed with a perforated metal 
skimmer. As the sap becomes concentrated, a mineral 
substance may form and float in the sirup or be deposited 



By-products of the Northern Woodlot 231 

on the bottom and sides of the kettle or pans. This is a 
lime formation, and if floating, it may be removed by strain- 
ing through cheesecloth, or by allowing it to settle and 
later draw off the clear sirup. In sirup-making, the 
boiling should be completed at the proper time. This is 




Fig. 52. — Boiling down the sap in kettles in the woods. 

determined by testing in various ways. If the sirup is 
too thin, it has a tendency to sour ; if too thick, it will 
crystalHze and form sugar. When properly made, a 
gallon should weigh eleven pounds. This is the standard 
weight of a gallon. After a httle experience, the maker can 
very readily judge the density by the way the bubbles 
break on the surface of the boiling sirup or by the way it 
pours from a spoon. A safer way is to test with a ther- 
mometer. Sirup that boils from 217° to 219° F. is at the 
correct density and will weigh about eleven pounds a gal- 
lon. A safer plan is to weigh a gallon of the cool sirup. 



232 



The Farm Woodlot 



SUGARING-OFF 

In making sugar, the sirup should be reboiled until 
it begins to crystallize. Formerly this point was found 
by pouring a little sirup on the snow or by dipping into 

it a twig bent into 
a loop. If the sirup 
became waxy on the 
snow, or formed a 
film within a loop, 
it had boiled enough 
and was ready to 
"sugar." Under 
more modern meth- 
ods, the test is done 
with a thermometer, 
and sugar is made 
at different temper- 
atures, according to 
the qualities wanted. 
During the early run 
of sap, 238° F. will 
make cake sugar, 
but later in the sea- 
son the sap will re- 
quire 242° F. If 
harder sugar is wanted, the thermometer can be brought up 
to 245° to 253° F. The pan or kettle is removed from the 
fire, and the sugar is slowly stirred to lower its temperature 
and thus avoid too rapid granulation. It is then molded 
into cakes of one to five pounds or put in ten pound pails. 




r=T 



Fig. 53. — Plan of model sugarhouse : 
tional view showing evaporator, 
tank, and gathering tank (on sled), 
vation. C, ground plan. 



A, sec- 
storage 

B, ele- 



By-products of the Northern Woodlot 233 

Sugar or sirup should be stored in a cool, dry cellar or 
storeroom, as excessive heat tends to make the sugar 
mold and the sirup to ferment. 

YIELD PER TREE 

Different quantities of sap are yielded by the same 
grove in different years, depending on the condition of the 
weather. However, an average mature maple will pro- 
duce about twelve gallons of sap or three pounds of sugar 
per annum. This is about the average, but much higher 
yields have been reported. For example, a grove was 
known to average 19 gallons of sap a tree during eight 
consecutive seasons, which included one poor year. A 
tree in Vermont produced 30f pounds of sugar in one 
season, its sap being so rich that seven quarts made one 
pound of sugar. Another maple in the same state gave 
175 gallons of sap in one season. 

EFFECT ON TREE 

Three pounds is looked upon as a good yield. This 
represents about 9 per cent of the sugar contents of a 
small tree, and probably not more than 4 per cent in the 
case of a good-sized tree. This amount under ordinary 
circumstances can easily be spared by the tree without 
injury. If, however, a cloudy summer or forest cater- 
pillar defoHation lessened the opportunity for starch 
storage, or if the environment, leaf area, age or size of the 
tree mihtated against it, such a drain might become a 
serious one. Tapping does very little injury to the tree, 
if properly done. Trees tapped annually for many years 



234 The Farm Woodlot 

show little or no effect from this slight injury. Usually 
the holes heal over in one or two seasons. 

Notes on maple sugar making 

Ice found in the buckets on frosty mornings should be thrown 
out, if it is floating. If the whole mass is frozen, it should be 
collected. 

One gallon (eleven pounds) of standard sirup will produce 
from six and one-half to eight pounds of sugar. 

One hundred trees in a favorable season should yield forty 
gallons of sirup of three hundred pounds of sugar. 

One tree will yield from one to seven pounds of sugar a season 
or from one pint to one gallon of sirup. 

Wash the spouts or spiles with boiling water and when dry 
store away for next season. 

Trees in the open give more and richer sap than those farther 
back in the bush, crowded and shaded, because of greater leaf 
expansion and sun exposure. 

No more sugar is yielded by tapping on the "branchy" side 
of a tree than that relatively devoid of branches. 

Without exception more sap and sugar is obtained from the 
outer 1.5 inches than from tissues deeper in the holes. Four- 
fifths of the sugar yielded from a tap-hole six inches deep came 
from the first or outer three inches of wood tissue. The remain- 
ing fifth would not compensate for the extra labor of boring and 
increased injury to the tree. 

The sap obtained from the customary tapping height (four feet) 
was found to be greater in quantity and better in quality than that 
from the root (at ground level) or higher on the tree (fourteen feet). 

The larger the tap-hole the more sap and sugar, for a time at 
least. It is undesirable, however, so to wound the tree that 
the hole will not soon heal over. A |-inch to f sharp bit is 
recommended for tapping. 

The spout should not obstruct the wood tissues of the tree, 
should securely hold the pail and should be easily inserted and 
removed. 



By-products of the Northern Woodlot 235 

Sixty-three per cent of the sap drops before noon. There is 
a slight betterment in its sugar content as the day advances. 
The average sugar content of maple sap is about 3 per cent. 
There is a decrease in solids as well as in sugar as the season 
advances. 

If three pounds of sugar be made to the tree, from 4 per 
cent to 9 per cent, according to the size of the tree, is removed. 

The flow of sap is diminished and the flavor of sirup and sugar 
altered where there has been a severe attack of leaf-eating in- 
sects the year before. 

There is a difference in opinion as to the quality of the sap 
yielded by the soft maples (red maple and silver maple), some 
holding that the sirup is inferior in quality and color, while 
others say it compares favorably with that of hard maples. How- 
ever, it is thought that the soft maples do not stand tapping as 
well as the hard maples and "play out" earlier in the season. 

WINTERGREEN OIL FROM BLACK BIRCH 

The bark of the black or cherry birch {Betula lento) 
contains a pleasant flavored aromatic oil which is almost 
identical with the oil of wintergreen made from the com- 
mon wintergreen (Gaultheria procumheus) and is widely 
used as a substitute. This oil is made by distilling the 
bark and twigs of the birch by the usual distillation pro- 
cess. Considerable revenue may be secured from the bark 
and branches of this birch, or the brush after cutting for 
other purposes. This industry is confined chiefly to the 
northeastern United States and uses what otherwise would 
be waste brush fit only to pile and burn. 

TANNING MATERIALS 

The leaves and bark of sumac, the bark of white oak 
(Quercus alba), chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) and hem- 



236 The Farm Woodlot 

lock, together with the wood of the chestnut, are valuable 
products of the eastern forests and woodlots used for 
tanning hides and skins in the manufacture of leather. 
Sumac is used for tanning fine kid leathers. The leaves 
generally are used. They are collected during the summer 
and dried ready for market. 

Owing to the comparatively slow growth of the oaks and 
the hemlock, about one good crop is as much as a lot will 
yield in a life time, but a well-managed woodlot of con- 
siderable size within reach of markets for tanning material 
may yield in time considerable revenue from the bark of 
these trees. Oak bark is peeled in the spring of the year 
immediately after the trees are felled (from April to 
June). Hemlock bark may be peeled any time during 
the summer until August or September. The felled trees 
are girdled every four feet, and the bark is removed with a 
chisel-Hke tool called a "spud." The bark comes in 
strips of variable width. These pieces of bark are leaned 
against the tree trunk with the flesh side out where there 
is free circulation of air for drying and seasoning. In 
two or three days, if the weather is dry, the bark may be 
collected and ranked into cords. Tan bark is sold by the 
cord and brings from $6 to $12, according to the kind and 
quality. 

Chestnut wood for tanning purposes finds a ready mar- 
ket in many places in the eastern United States. Chest- 
nut wood contains a higher percentage of tannin than does 
the bark, differing in this respect from oak and hemlock, 
the bark of which contains more tannin than the woods. 
For this reason, chestnut wood is used extensively in the 
manufacture of tannin extract. Practically every eastern 



By-products of the Northern Woodlot 237 

woodlot contains chestnut and when within reach of an 
extract plant, chestnut cordwood may be marketed to 
good advantage. Wood from old and young trees may be 
used as well as from Uving and dead trees. The wood 
from dead trees must be sound. The wood of old trees has 
a higher tannin percentage than wood from young trees. 
Dead chestnut wood is said to yield more tannin than liv- 
ing wood. There is also a higher percentage in the butt 
of a tree than in the top. 

Specifications of extract wood 

Extract wood is purchased either by the standard 
cord (4 X 4 X 8' or 128 cu. ft.) or the long cord (5X4X8' 
or 160 cu. ft.). A cord of 128 cubic feet contains approxi- 
mately 90 cubic feet of soHd wood, leaving 38 cubic feet of air 
space. A cord of 160 cubic feet contains approximately 128 
cubic feet of solid wood. Split wood from large trees is pre- 
ferred, but extract plants will accept chestnut sticks that are 
not less than four inches in diameter at the small end. 
A cord of 128 cubic feet usually sells for $2.50 to $3.00 on 
board cars at shipping point, and $3.00 to $3.50 a cord of 
160 cubic feet. Wood with the bark on is as readily ac- 
cepted as wood that has been peeled. The wood is ground 
into small particles by special machinery, conveyed into 
large tanks where it is treated with hot water. The water 
leaches out the tannin, producing a dark colored liquid. 
This liquid is then evaporated in special vacuum evapo- 
rating pans until sufficiently concentrated, after which it 
is shipped in barrels or tank cars. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE DURABILITY AND PRESERVATION OF 
WOODS 

The term durability as applied to wood usually refers 
to the natural resistance of the wood to rot, and it will be 
so considered here. 

This quality of durability is of great importance, both 
to the farmer who already has an established woodlot or to 
the one who is about to do some planting. The uses to 
which a larger part of the wood used on the farm is put 
demand durability in contact with the soil and the weather, 
— for on this durability depends very largely the cost of 
maintaining the structure. Fence posts, gate posts, poles, 
stakes, sills, and the like, all require durability in contact 
with the soil, while all the work on the exterior of the home 
and out-buildings must resist the ravages of the weather. 

In addition to these uses for durable wood on the farm 
itself, there is frequently a good market for ties and poles. 
For these pnrposes the more durable woods bring very 
much better prices, especially white oak for ties and white 
cedar or chestnut for poles. This market is profitable 
enough to demand careful consideration in the manage- 
ment of the woodlot. 

Therefore, it is to the farmer's interest to pay particular 
attention to the durability of the species that he is growing 

238 



The Durability and Preservation of Woods 239 

in his woodlot. The following is a list of woods arranged 
by H. von Schrenk in order of lasting power : — 



Very Durable 


Durable 


Short Lived 


Walnut 


Ash 


Beech 


Locust 


Larch 


Sycamore 


Sequoia 


Yellow pine 


Birch 


Cedar 


Spruce 


Linden 


White oak 


Fir 


Cottonwood 


Catalpa 


Yellow poplar 


White pine 


Sassafras 


Douglas fir 




Chestnut 






Long leaf pine 







FACTORS INFLUENCING DURABILITY 

Durability is affected by very many conditions. The 
greater the proportion of solid wood substance, the greater 
the durability. Hence, the higher the specific gravity, 
the longer a wood will last. This, however, applies only 
to wood of the same species. Heavy red oak is more 
durable than light red oak, but not nearly so durable as 
light cedar. 

Broad-ringed hardwoods, that is, the trees that have 
made more rapid diameter growth, are less durable than 
narrow-ringed, or slow-grown hardwoods. Experiments 
in Europe have shown a great difference. Coniferous, 
or soft woods, pines, spruces, and so on, are much more 
durable when they have grown slowly and formed even, 
narrow rings. Thus, we see that in growing timber for 
durability, it is best to plant hardwoods in good soil, but 



240 The Farm Woodlot 

they should be crowded into a slow and even growth by- 
close planting and light thinnings. The timber of a sound 
mature tree is more durable than that of an immature or 
overmature specimen. There is more solid wood substance 
in it. If a tree is too old, the center of the heartwood is 
not very durable. 

Intense coloration of heartwood is another indication 
of the durability of timber. As a rule the trees with dark 
heartwoods are durable. This is a rough criterion. In 
the same species the darker specimen is always the more 
durable. This coloring is due to the formation of tannin 
and vanillin in the heartwood. Both these are distasteful 
to bacteria and fungi. Colorless heartwoods lacking these 
substances have nearly the same properties as sapwood and 
are little more durable than they. 

Besides this lack of protective materials in its make-up, 
the sapwood is at great disadvantage in resisting rot. 
The cell walls are not thoroughly lignified and the wood 
is consequently soft and of low specific gravity. There is 
more moisture in sapwood than in the heartwood, and the 
greater porosity of the sapwood makes it easier for it to 
alternately dry out and absorb moisture. The drying of 
the sap leaves a sugary residue in the cells which seems very 
attractive to the spores of the bacteria and fungi. It is 
the combination of these causes that makes the sapwood 
of the cedar, — whose heart is one of the most durable 
woods we have, — rot in a year or two ; it contains more 
ready food and served in more attractive form for its 
enemies. 

The season of cutting is popularly supposed to be a very 
important factor in the durability of timber, and there has 



The Durability and Preservation of Woods 241 

been much discussion on the subject. This importance 
has probably been greatly exaggerated. Since the pres- 
ence of moisture is necessary to the growth of fungi, the 
time when the least moisture is in the trees should naturally 
be chosen, the autumn or winter. This time of cutting 
has the further advantage of having the last season's 
layer of wood fully lignified and thus more resistant of 
decay. The chief objection is the difficulty of peeling 
the bark from logs cut at this time. On the other hand, 
logs cut in the spring or early summer peel readily and 
season quickly in the ensuing hot weather. The only 
difficulty is that some woods, especially oak, will season 
too rapidly and consequently check badly. These cracks 
are very injurious to the logs and form good openings for 
the attack of the fungi, which are especially numerous at 
this season. 

Fall or winter is a good time for the cutting of all species ; 
it is the best time for oaks and all other woods that check 
badly in seasoning. Other non-checking species may be 
cut in the spring; they are easily peeled and advantage 
may be taken of the rapid summer seasoning. 

Naturally durable woods 
Some woods are naturally more durable than others. 
Chestnut or cedar will last in the ground for years, while 
Cottonwood or birch will often rot within nine months. 
For this reason there has, in the past, been a tremendous 
demand for the so-called durable woods for fence posts, 
railroad ties, telegraph and telephone poles, and so on. 
The supply of white oak, white and red cedar, chestnut, 
red elm, black ash, locust, coffee tree, cypress, tamarack, 



242 The Farm Woodlot 

and the like, has rapidly decreased and, consequently the 
price has constantly increased. 

Substitutes 

The price of some of these species has now reached a 
prohibitive point that makes it necessary to find some 
substitute, cheaper and yet as effective as possible. Steel, 
cement, combinations of the two, and several other 
materials have been tried with very little success, as a 
general rule. The only really satisfactory substitute 
seems to be inferior species of wood that have been treated 
with some preservative to prevent decay. 

There are some places in which cement posts can be 
used with advantage. They are so heavy that they 
cannot be shipped very far, but when the cement can be 
secured easily and the sand is found close by, the posts can 
be made where they are to be used and will prove very 
satisfactory. Their use should never be attempted where 
there is any considerable amount of alkali in the soil, for 
the alkali will eat out the cement and the post will very 
soon crumble. 

Many such preservatives have been used in European 
countries for many years with admirable success. Beech, 
one of the least durable of woods, is treated in France and 
the ties guaranteed for fifteen years. Salts of zinc and 
copper are also successfully used. These experiments 
were on European species and it cannot be predicted with 
certainty what the results would be on American species 
and under American conditions. It is probable, however, 
that the results will be much the same. It should be even 
more satisfactory in this country than in Europe, for we 



The Durability and Preservation of Woods 243 

have some cheaper species here, — and all species are of 
equal durability when treated. 

CAUSE OF ROT 

What is generally known as rot in wood is the result of 
a low form of vegetable or fungous growth. There are 
thousands of species of these plants, but as they are all 
parasitic and have practically the same development, a 
brief, general life history will answer for all of them. 

The spore, or egg, from which this plant develops is 
almost, in some cases wholly, invisible to the naked eye. 
They are carried about by the wind in countless numbers. 
The vast majority of them fall in unsuitable locations and 
die, but some of them, finding openings in trees and logs, 
begin their own development to the destruction of the host 
on which they are growing. They usually take up their 
positions in a dead tree or log, but occasionally make their 
way into some live vigorous tree the bark of which has 
been broken by a wind storm, a poor job of pruning, or 
some other injury. 

Once the spore has found lodgment in a favorable local- 
ity, it begins a very rapid development. Mycelia, long, 
white, threadlike filaments, penetrate the cell walls and fill 
up the interior of the cells. In this way the life of the cell 
is destroyed, and the substance of the wood becomes food 
for the fungus. The growth of the plant is indeterminate 
and so many cells of the wood are destroyed that the host 
itself finally gives up the struggle and dies, thus giving 
itself up wholly to the myriad of weaker fungi and insects 
that attack a dead or dying tree. 

When the fungus has reached the proper stage of develop- 



244 The Farm Woodlot 

ment, the mycelia develop fruiting bodies on the outside of 
the wood. These fruiting bodies are usually in the form 
of a mushroom, toadstool or shelf fungus, but may have 
many different forms. Some of these fruiting bodies are 
renewed annually, such as the mushrooms, but the shelf 
fungus renews itself by simply laying a new covering over 
the old growth. In this new growth thousands of spores 
develop and mature. From them the mature spores 
start out to establish another generation of pests. With- 
out such plants there would be no rot. 

Certain conditions are necessary to the growth of this 
fungus. Without them it cannot exist. The most im- 
portant of these are air and moisture. This may readily 
be seen by examining a telegraph pole which has been in the 
ground for some years. It will be found in very good 
condition everywhere except where it enters the ground. 
Here, especially if there is any sapwood on the pole, there 
will be a ring of rot, because here alone we have the two 
requisites, air and moisture present in sufficient quantities 
to support fungus. In the upper portions of the pole, 
there is plenty of air, but the supply of moisture is not 
constant. Below the surface, where the soil holds the 
moisture continually, there is not sufficient air. 

This accounts for the fact that timbers will lie, unim- 
paired, for years on the arid desert where the wood dries 
out very quickly after a rain. It explains why the piling 
put in by the Lake Dwellers centuries ago is yet in good 
condition, and why logs which have lain for centuries 
under the water-soaked moss and debris in the woods of 
Washington and Oregon show no signs of decay. The 
air cannot get to them. 



The Durability and Preservation of Woods 245 

When either air or moisture is lacking fungi cannot live ; 
and where fungi cannot live there is no rot. Since air and 
moisture are both necessary to the development of fungi, 
it is seen plainly that by eliminating either one of these, 
rot can be prevented. 

METHOD OF SEASONING LOGS AND TIMBER 

This process should begin in the woods as soon as the 
timber is cut and proceed slowly and steadily till the wood 
is dry. To accomplish this the logs should be peeled, 
if they are to be left in the woods any length of time, 
and put upon skids. It would pay in some cases to split 
the more valuable hardwood logs to cause more thorough 
drying. This seasoning should not, however, be allowed 
to proceed too rapidly or the logs will check badly, and 
the cracks will open up the damp interior of the log to the 
attacks of the fungi. The checking of the ends of logs is 
prevented by a coat of paint that prevents too rapid 
seasoning, and hence checking. 

Seasoning lumber 

In the lumber yard, still greater care should be taken 
with the seasoning of the sawn lumber. The bottoms of 
the piles should be raised on skids, and lath strips or, 
better yet, narrow inch boards, — placed near the ends of 
the boards and always directly below each other, — put 
between every two layers of boards across the pile. This 
insures good circulation of air. 

When possible, lumber should always be piled under 
cover for seasoning. This allows a more even temperature, 
protected from the direct rays of the sun ; and there is good 



246 The Farm Woodlot 

circulation of air without exposure to the heavy winds. 
From three months to a year and a half according to the 
species and thickness of the pieces is necessary for thorough 
seasoning. Some valuable cabinet woods require ten or 
twelve years to season thoroughly. It is well to paint the 
ends of the lumber piles to prevent too rapid drying and 
consequent checking. 

A cheap and very effective, although rather slow method 
of seasoning logs is to soak them in a pond. This leaches 
out the sap from the cells and causes the timbers to dry 
very rapidly when taken from the water. It also prevents 
checking to a considerable degree. Many species are im- 
proved greatly by this soaking process and to many it is 
a necessity. Besides seasoning against fungi, this also 
destroys the larvae of boring insects that may be in the 
sap wood. 

Wood should never be painted until it is thoroughly 
seasoned. The moisture confined in the interior of the 
wood by a coat of paint is sufficient to support the growth 
of the dry-rot fungus. Thus we often find a post com- 
pletely rotten through the center though it is painted and 
placed in a dry situation. For this same reason sills or 
joists should never be built solidly into a wall so that the 
air cannot circulate freely around them. Otherwise mois- 
ture collects and dry rot sets in. 

THE COATING OF TIMBERS 

However, when the wood has once been properly sea- 
soned, a coating of some substance which will keep the 
wood from reabsorbing moisture will greatly increase its 
durability, — for it is the constant soaking and drying 



The Durability and Preservation of Woods 247 

out that rots a wood most quickly. This coating should 
be of an oily or resinous substance which will make a 
smooth coating and will not peel off when dry. It should 
be applied to the whole exposed surface. 

Coal tar 

Coal tar is probably the best of these coverings. If 
applied hot and mixed with oil of turpentine, deeper pene- 
tration and hence better protection is secured. One part 
of unsalted grease to three parts of tar oil answers the same 
purpose as the turpentine and is cheaper. One barrel of 
coal tar will cover from two to three hundred posts if 
properly applied. 

Oil paint 

Oil paints may also be used to advantage on well- 
seasoned wood. They are made of boiled linseed oil 
mixed with lead, pulverized charcoal or some other sub- 
stance to give it body. Soaking the dry wood in crude 
petroleum or creosote is also recommended. 

Lime white-wash 

Plain lime white-wash makes a fairly good protective 
covering. It is not, however, as good as an oily or resinous 
substance because the salts leach out of the wood rather 
easily. As long as the lime is present, it works perfectly, 
but the lime washes out. The wood must, of course, be dry 
and the white-wash spread evenly. If shingles are to be 
treated in this way, they should be dipped before being 
laid. 



248 The Farm Woodlot 

Charring 

Charring is a very good method of protecting those 
timbers which come in contact with the ground. The 
carbonization of the exterior of the \yood forms a coating 
impervious to the fungus attacks. It also serves to 
harden the wood. It must, however, be very carefully 
applied. A r,ather thick layer of charcoal must be formed 
over the entire exposed surface, but at the same time the 
timber must not crack. A crack either exposes the 
interior to rot or allows the fire to burn in so deep that the 
strength of the timber is seriously impaired. The process 
should not be applied to any timbers on whose strength 
dependence is placed. It is only suitable for posts and 
poles. 

A very effective way to char posts is to dip them in tar 
or, better yet, crude petroleum, and burn off the coating. 
This chars the posts evenly and drives some of the oil into 
the wood. Some experiments have shown that posts 
treated in this way have tested very well in comparison 
with posts treated with creosote. 

GENERAL RULES ON PRESERVING TIMBERS 

All timbers should be thoroughly peeled, both outer 
and inner bark, before treatment. Bark prevents season- 
ing, prevents the preservative from sinking into the wood 
and itself absorbs preservative which will not increase the 
durability of the wood. 

Sap wood is much more easily treated than heart wood, 
in fact the penetration of the liquid practically ceases when 
the heartwood is reached, unless some special provision is 



The Durability and Preservation of Woods 249 

made for it, except in the case of elm, of which the heart- 
wood treats more readily than the sap. The more dis- 
tinct the heartwood, the harder it is to treat. 

The deeper the penetration, the more efficient the treat- 
ment. It is for this reason that open and closed tank 
treating processes are preferred to the cheaper brush 
methods. The better the wood is seasoned, the easier 
the treatment and the deeper the penetration. An oily or 
resinous solution is better than a solution of mineral salts. 
The species without distinct heartwood treat as though 
they were all sap. 

The process of treating the so-called inferior woods to 
increase their durability has been in use in Europe for 
many years. The results of the treatment of European 
woods by all the different processes under European condi- 
tions of soil and atmosphere are fairly well known. The 
factories which do the treating often guarantee their 
products for a certain number of years. For example, 
such companies in France guarantee their beech railroad 
ties for fifteen years' service. It is an established and 
thoroughly reliable industry. It has been put to every 
test and found satisfactory. In the United States the 
abundance of all kinds of wood prevented the use of pre- 
servatives. Only the increasing scarcity of durable woods 
and the higher price in consequence have made it possible. 
The government and the railroads have been doing most 
of the experimental work along this line. All the pro- 
cesses known in Europe and some original ones have been 
tried with varying results. Dozens of different methods 
and impregnating materials are used. Many of these 
require an expensive and complicated apparatus which 



250 The Farm Woodlot 

puts them beyond the farmer's reach. Only such simple 
and inexpensive processes as have been found best suited 
for use on the farm will be considered here. 

Preservative materials 

The most effective, cheapest and most easily secured 
material according to the United States Forest Service is 
creosote, dead oil of coal tar, a by-product of coke ovens 
and gas factories. The higher the specific gravity, the 
better the results obtained. The price varies from 10^ in 
the East to 27^ in the Rocky Mountains, and 15^ on the 
Pacific coast. Timbers treated with this material have 
often had their length of service increased tenfold. 

Copper sulphate, zinc chloride, mercuric chloride, car- 
bolineum and many patent solutions make more or less 
inferior materials on account of cost, solubility or diffi- 
culty in applying. 

There are three practical methods of applying the pre- 
servative : painting it on with a brush ; dipping the 
timbers in a tank of the preservative ; or putting them 
through what is known as the open-tank process. 

Brush method 

The advantage of the brush method is that it requires 
no tank, and the application is consequently cheap. The 
creosote should be kept at a maximum temperature of 
150° F. especially if the weather is cold, for it quickly 
solidifies at a low temperature. The hot liquid is spread 
evenly on the thoroughly peeled and seasoned post with a 
large brush. Great care should be taken to get it into all 
the cracks. When the first coat has dried, the second 



The Durability and Preservation of Woods 251 

coat should be applied. The application of a third coat 
does no good. In cold weather this process is not very 
satisfactory. The creosote, coming in contact with the 
cold wood and the cold atmosphere, solidifies so quickly 
that it does not have a chance to soak into the wood. 
The hardened first coat forms a shell through which the 
second coat seldom penetrates. 

Even under the best conditions, the penetration ob- 
tained under this process is very slight, seldom averaging 
over one-sixteenth of an inch. Provided the cracks that 
already existed in the wood are tSoroughly filled, which 
is far from certain in this process, the post is entirely free 
from decay so long as it holds its original form ; but the 
slightest check or crack that occurs after treatment 
exposes the unprotected interior, and dry rot gets into the 
wood, making the outer coating of preservative useless, or, 
perhaps, even a means of conserving moisture for the use 
of the fungi. This method is only good when a better 
cannot be applied. 

Dipping 

Very good results are secured by dipping the posts into 
hot solutions of creosote or carbolineum. The solution 
should be kept at a maximum of 150° as before, because 
creosote volatilizes very rapidly above that point. The 
posts are dipped into the tank and laid away in some well- 
ventilated place to dry. The penetration under this 
method is not very much greater than with the brush 
method, but a more even coating is obtained and the 
submersion in the hot liquid opens up all the incipient 
checks and thoroughly fills them with creosote. It 



252 The Farm Woodlot 

requires the initial cost of a large iron tank and more fuel 
to keep a large body of creosote at a high temperature, 
but the method of application is much more rapid, and 
when there are any number of posts to be dipped, it is 




Fig. 54. — A United States Forest Service plant for the preservative 
treatment of fenc& posts. 

cheaper then the brush method. It is the best method of 
treatment aside from the actual impregnation of the 
woods. 

Open-tank treatment. Figs. 54, 55 

The open-tank method is peculiarly adapted to the 
treatment of fence posts, poles, ties or other small timbers. 
The same apparatus is required as for the dipping process ; 
an iron tank fitted with a fire box or steam coil for raising 
the temperature of the creosote. Slightly better results 



The Durability and Preservation of Woods 253 

are secured if an even temperature can be maintained. 
This is better accomplished by steam, which, however, is 
not always to be had. The less surface the liquid has, the 
less oil will be lost by volatilization; hence the tank 
should not be of too large diameter. 

The Forest Service recommends surrounding the metal 
tank with a plank framework inclosing a space 4 inches 
wide between the tank and the boards. This space should 
be packed with sawdust. This packing is especially 
beneficial in cold climates. It prevents the too rapid 
solidifying of the creosote. The erection of such a plant 
will cost from $30 to $45. 

For this treatment the seasoned peeled posts are placed 
in the tank of creosote, either wholly submerged or only 
the butts under as is desired, and kept there from |^ to 6 
hours. The temperature of the creosote should be kept 
as nearly as possible between 200° and 210°. The expan- 
sion caused by the heat forces out much of the water and 
air from the wood cells. 

The fires are then drawn and the posts left in the cool- 
ing solution for |-14 hours. The cooling causes a 
vacuum in the cells from which the water and air were 
driven by the heat, and the creosote is forced into these 
vacuums by the pressure of the atmosphere. Mr. Weiss of 
the Forest Service thinks that a short hot bath and a long 
cool bath probably will give the most economical results. 

If there are a large number of posts to be treated and it 
is desirable to hurry the work, two tanks may be used, one 
for the hot bath and the other for the cool. The posts 
may then be transferred directly from one tank to the 
other and the hot tank immediately refilled. This is an 



254 



The Farm Woodlot 



especial advantage 
in a wet climate in 
which there is dan- 
ger of the top of 
the post rotting. 
In this case the cool 
tank is made ob- 
long, about 4 X 4 X 8 
feet, so that the 
posts may be put 
in horizontally and 
completely sub- 
merged. This gives 
a deep penetration 
in the butt of the 
post where it is 
needed and only a 
dipping of the top. 
The posts will 
float very high in 
the creosote and 
some contrivance 
will be necessary to 
force them under. 
This can best be 
done in the follow- 
ing way : set two 
posts firmly about 
six inches apart 
beside the tank. Fasten them together at a level with the 
top of the tank with a cross piece. Take a pole four or 




Fig. 55. — Single tank for treating posts. 



The Durability and Preservation of Woods 255 

five inches in diameter and about ten feet long. Insert 
one end between the posts and under the cross piece, let- 
ting the other end protrude across the tank. Under the 
loose end of the pole anchor a pulley. By means of this 
pulley and a rope attached to the end of the pole, the pole 
may be drawn down and tied. Then cut a two- inch plank 
of a length that will fit loosely in the tank crosswise. Lay 
this flat. Cut another piece about two feet long. Nail 
one end of this to the center of the first piece so that it 
stands at right angles to it. Brace it securely. When the 
posts are placed in the tank lay this long piece on them. 
Then place the pole across the upright piece. Draw down 
the end of the pole with the rope and the posts will be 
submerged. This apparatus has worked very successfully. 

The penetration secured by this method varies from 
an eighth of an inch to two inches according to the species, 
the degree of seasoning and the thickness of the sapwood. 
It usually is possible to get complete penetration of the 
sapwood ; the heartwood is little affected. This penetra- 
tion is sufficient to prevent small checks and cracks from 
exposing the untreated interior of the post. The life of a 
post is increased under normal conditions of use and 
atmosphere to about twenty years. 

Experience in Minnesota has shown the following 
equipment to be best suited for use on the farm on which 
steam is not always available. It is inexpensive, can be 
transported easily from one farm to another in any wagon 
and is more easily heated than the ordinary tank. It 
consists of a single cylindrical tank, built of twenty gauge 
galvanized iron, three feet in diameter and three and one- 
half or four feet deep. The iron may be plain or corru- 



256 The Farm Woodlot 

gated. The latter makes a stiffer tank, but in either case 
it should be reenforced around the top and bottom with 
three-quarter inch angle iron. It should be perforated 
six inches from the botton and two feet from the bottom 
to receive a two-inch pipe. If the iron is plain, locknuts 
should be provided to make the joint tight ; if it is corru- 
gated, nipples should be soldered in. Into these openings 
a four-foot "U" of two-inch pipe is inserted, as shown in 
the figure. This apparatus works like the water-back 
on a stove. A fire is built under the "U" pipe, and the 
oil in the tank is readily heated. The temperature can 
easily be controlled in this way, and there is less danger 
from fire in case of an overflow from the tank. When 
the hot bath has been completed, the fire can be removed 
and the oil cooled as desired. When the butts of the posts 
have been treated in this way, the oil left in the tank can 
be applied to the upper portion of the posts with a brush. 
This utiHzes the oil which otherwise would be wasted and 
insures the top of post from rotting while the butt is still 
good. Such a tank can be bought for ten or fifteen dollars. 
It is quite as effective as the more expensive double tank 
outfit and is much more easily moved about. It is neces- 
sarily much slower than the double tank process, but that 
would not be very important where a comparatively 
small number of posts is involved. 

The cost of such treatment cannot be stated definitely 
in a general work of this kind. It will vary in different 
parts of the country according to the cost of labor, fuel 
and creosote. The creosote is of course the controlling 
factor. The cost of fuel and labor are almost negligible 
and, moreover, in many cases cost nothing but a little 



The Durability and Preservation of Woods 257 

effort on the part of the farmer himself. This method is 
recommended by the United States Forest Service as the 
best. 

Fifteen cents is probably near the maximum if we consider 
the cost of fuel and labor.^ Considering the annual expense 
of a treated post as compared with an untreated post, we 
find that the increased life of the treated post, in spite of its 
higher initial cost, makes its annual cost lower by one to 
three cents. At that rate a long line of fence would pay 
fairly well. 





Untreated 
Posts 


Treated 


Cost of post 

Treating 

Setting « . 


$.06 
.00 
.12 


$.06 
.15 
.12 


Cost set in fence 

Length of service ...... 


$.18 
6 years 


$.33 

20 years 


Annual cost ........ 


$.03 


$.0165 



Saving per year per mile of fence with treated posts, $4.32. 

The agents of the carbolineum companies assert that a 
simple dipping with carbolineum, at a cost of three cents 
a post, is as ejffective as the more expensive treatment 
with creosote. This has never been adequately tested. 

A community, by buying one of these treating plants 
and cooperating in the use of it, could greatly reduce the 
cost of treatment and this without any inconvenience to 
themselves. The capacity of one plant would probably 
be enough for all. 

1 The average cost of treatment is less than ten cents. 
S 



258 



The Farm Woodlot 



The apparatus is inexpensive, the process simple, the 
work easy and capable of being done at a time of the year 
when the farmer is at leisure, and the results are worth 




Fig. 56. — Cottonwoods as roadside trees. 



trying for. The farmers owe it to themselves and to their 
children to make better use of the timbers growing on 
their farms. 



CHAPTER XII 

ARBORICULTURE AND ORNAMENTAL 
PLANTING 

Although ornamental planting does not belong in a 
book on forestry, it has to do with trees, and popular 
demand requires that a few of the important points be 
taken up briefly. The foregoing chapters on the handling 
and growth of trees in groves and plantations make it easy 
to deal with the individual tree or small group. 

Lawn trees are usually grown for one of two purposes : 
ornament and shade, or the hiding of some unsightly object. 
In either case, it is necessary to have hardy trees that can 
stand the cold of winter and the hot winds of summer 
without becoming stunted and scrawny in shape. 

The trees selected for such planting need not be chosen 
from the list of trees that are suitable for forest plantations 
in that region. The more careful selection of location, 
the more thorough care and cultivation that may be 
practiced with the individual tree, make it possible to grow 
successfully many species that could not succeed under 
plantation conditions. Such species are always more or 
less of a risk, but the added interest in growing a tree that 
is a stranger to the region makes the chance worth while. 
If shade and ornament is the object, care should be taken to 
select trees which will produce this effect. Often trees of 
ugly form and appearance are placed where much better 
species could easily be grown. The only excuse for an ugly 

259 



260 



The Farm Woodlot 



tree in such a situation is its oddness, and the growing of 
such trees should not be risked till the chief object of shade 
and protection have been secured by the use of safe species. 



1^ 






^4.' ^i. 






•■•'-# 

^^; 



^-mimmm. was -»-« 




^^^ 



Fig. 57. — Roadside planting of catalpa. 

In order to be desirable for a lawn, it is not enough that 
a tree shall grow and thrive. It must have a shapely 



Arboriculture and Ornamental Planting 261 

form that will please the eye, and be long lived. If a 
shade tree, it must have dense enough foliage to produce 
a solid, cool shade and not have merely enough leaves to 
stop the breeze and let through the heat of the sunshine. 
Moreover, the branches must be long, low and widespread- 
ing enough to furnish a considerable area of shade. It 
must be free from the attacks of insect pests that in the 
form of dropping bugs or caterpillars would make its pro- 
tection unpleasant. It must be ''clean" ; that is, it must 
not shed excessive quantities of cotton, leaf stems or twigs 
on the lawn. It must not bear soft, squashy berries or 
other similar fruits. The trees which fulfill all these 
requirements are not very numerous ; there are, however, 
good species for every region. 

Trees for roadside planting or bordering a driveway need 
not possess all these properties ; in fact, some of them are 
undesirable. They must not have low, widespreading 
limbs, but rather limbs that rise at a sharp angle so that 
they are widespread only at a considerable distance above 
the ground. Neither soft fruit or leaf litter are objec- 
tionable, but falling limbs and cotton are as undesirable 
here as elsewhere. They should also be long lived. Such 
trees form over the drive a high arch which is very attrac- 
tive. They should be rapid growers, for the effect is not 
appreciated until the trees are large. 

In the formation of groups or clumps, the most impor- 
tant point is the ability of the trees to grow in close forma- 
tions. For this purpose, trees are selected that are very 
tolerant of shade. They should always be of rather com- 
pact form, and have the habit of branching down to the 
ground. This adds density and solidity to the appearance 



262 



The Farm Woodlot 



of the group. Here again the trees should be ''clean," 
but otherwise the nature of the fruit is immaterial. Rapid- 
ity of growth is not essential, for the clump presents an 
attractive appearance at all stages. 




Fig. 58. — Windbreak of willow showing dense foliage to the ground. 

In the formation of a screen, thick limbs growing down 
to the ground, a dense foliage, the ability to grow in a close 
group and rapid growth are the qualities to be desired. 
Such trees as the white pine or the basswood might give 
promise for a time, but the effect would soon be spoiled. 
As the trees grow older, they would lose their lower limbs, 
and the screen would soon be full of openings. Willows, 



Arboriculture and Ornamental Planting 263 

spruce, balsam and cedars make the best screens, because 
they put out limbs close to the ground and retain them as 
they grow older (Figs. 58, 59). They grow very close 
together, and form an impenetrable screen. Willow is, 
of course, the best for quick results, but it is rather short 
lived and is deciduous. If this species is used, two rows 
should be planted, and one of them cut back every eight or 
ten years. This makes them sprout vigorously and keeps 
the lower limbs thrifty. It is well to plant a row or two of 
spruce or cedar at the same time. These will make a more 
permanent evergreen screen. When they have attained 
sufficient size, the willows may be cut down. 

TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES 

The methods of planting small seedlings have been dealt 
with under Sylviculture, but in lawn planting it is often 
desirable to use fairly good sized trees. The transplanting 
of these requires much more care and skill. Deciduous 
trees and conifers require different methods. 

The deciduous trees, or hardwoods, are best transplanted 
in the early spring before growth has started. They 
should be taken up with as much of the root system as 
possible. If all the roots can be kept intact, a very light 
pruning of the crown is all that is necessary. This, how- 
ever, can very seldom be done, and when the roots are 
pruned it is necessary to prune the crown more heavily. 
A balance must be maintained between the roots and the 
crown, the advantage always being kept with the former. 
Probably the safest method is to cut off all the limbs and 
prune the main stem severely. This, however, is apt to 
injure the shape of the tree and should be avoided when 



264 



The Farm Woodlot 



possible. In transplanting, the roots should not be exposed 
any longer than possible and never allowed to dry out. 
The roots of the hardwoods are not so sensitive as those of 
the conifers, but they will not stand too much exposure. 

In setting out such a tree, a hole should be dug that will 
easily accommodate the roots in their original position. 




Fig. 59. — A prosperous evergreen windbreak. 

They should never be crowded. The black surface earth 
should be put in a separate pile. The tree should be 
placed as nearly as possible in the same position in which 
it was growing, — possibly set two or three inches deeper. 
The black earth should then be put in first and packed 
tightly around the roots. The other soil may then be used 
to fill the hole, care being taken to firm it well. The soil 



Arboriculture and Ornamental Planting 265 

should be left a little lower than the surrounding ground 
so that some of the surface water may be retained in the 
hollow. A top dressing of well-rotted manure or wood 
ashes will help, for trees, like anything else, grow better 
in good soil. No manure should be put in the hole around 
the roots for fear of burning them. It is possible to plant 
such trees in the autumn after the falling of the leaves, but 
they are apt to suffer from the frost the following spring if 
there is much clay in the soil. 

The conifers need more careful handling. Their roots 
should never be exposed or allowed to dry out in the least. 
This can be prevented only by moving them with a large 
ball of earth. Since it is very difficult to keep such a ball 
of earth intact when the ground is soft in the early spring, 
the following method is recommended when the tree has to 
be moved any distance. For a short move they can be 
handled like the hardwoods. In the autumn, before the 
ground is hard frozen, dig a trench around the tree to be 
moved so as to include most of the roots in the central 
core of earth. Fill in the trench with straw to keep the 
ground at the bottom from freezing. Dig a hole in the 
place in which the tree is to be replanted large enough 
to accommodate the ball of earth conveniently. Also 
j&ll this with straw or manure and cover the earth taken 
from the hole with the same material to prevent freezing. 

Nothing more need be done till some convenient time 
in the winter when the ground is hard frozen, and pref- 
erably when snow is on the ground, because it is easier 
to load the tree on a low sled than on a wagon. Remove 
the straw from the trench around the tree, and loosen the 
ball of earth at the bottom and load the tree on the sled 



266 The Farm Woodlot 

or wagon. Skids are often more convenient than a wagon 
when there is no snow. The ball of earth on the roots 
will be hard frozen and will hold together readily. When 
the tree has been brought near its location, remove the 
covering from the hole and dirt pile. Lower the tree into 
the hole so that it is a little deeper than it was before. 
Fill in around the ball of earth with the soft earth, packing 
it firmly so that there is a good contact with the ball and 
with the sides of the hole. Leave a layer of straw over 
the fill to prevent injury from the freezing and thawing 
in the spring. If this method is carefully practiced, the tree 
should be affected little by its move. Care should be taken 
to secure all the roots, for if pruning of the top is neces- 
sary, the shape of an evergreen is likely to be spoiled. 

By means of these methods, it is possible to transplant 
almost any tree, but there is a limit of labor and expense 
beyond which it is not usually advisable to go. With 
the increase in the size of the tree, there is an enormous 
increase in labor. As a general rule, it does not pay to 
transplant a tree that is more than three or four inches in 
diameter. In this connection it must be remembered 
that much of the pleasure derived from a lawn tree is ob- 
tained from observing its growth and development. In 
this respect comparatively young trees are even better 
than the older ones which are no longer making very 
apparent changes. 

THE PRUNING OF TREES 

The pruning of trees is an operation that very easily 
may be overdone. It is necessary under the following 
conditions : when the roots have been injured ; when dead 



Arboriculture and Ornamental Planting 267 

limbs occur; when rot appears; to improve the shape 
of the tree ; to prevent damage from wind. 

When the roots have been injured 

This subject has already been dealt with under the head 
of transplanting. The same conditions may be brought 
about by root disease, or necessary pruning of roots, and 
the same remedy applies. 

When dead limbs occur 

The appearance of dead limbs may be due to old age, 
insect or fungus, snow, hail or wind breakage, or in- 
sufficient nourishment. In any case, only the dead or 
infected limbs should be removed. If there are indications 
of insects or disease, the pruned limbs should be carefully 
removed and burned. No trace of them should be left. 

To improve the shape of the tree 

Pruning for this purpose should be done very sparingly. 
It is not generally advisable to attempt to change very 
greatly the natural shape of a tree. The shape and 
habits of a tree should be known and considered when 
the tree is planted, instead of planting indiscriminately 
and then trying to make it conform to the fancy of the 
owner. Any attempt to make a tall, fan-shaped tree round- 
headed, or vice versa, will fail, and the tree so treated 
will always have a stilted, artificial appearance. A more 
bushy growth can be secured by pruning the leading shoots 
and this is sometimes advisable. It is also comparatively 
easy to accentuate the natural tendency of the tree by 
cutting off any stray branches which may be wandering 



268 The Farm Woodlot 

somewhat from the usual form. This may often be done 
to advantage. If there is any question about pruning a 
tree, always let it alone. 

To prevent wind breakage 

Certain trees are very liable to breakage in windy places. 
These are always trees in which the bran^ches form a sharp 
angle at the fork. The soft maple and the white elm are 
typical and probably the worst offenders in this respect. 
Their natural shape is very beautiful and should not be 
tampered with except when experience has shown that 
they cannot stand the strain. If the soft maple is planted 
on the prairies or in any other unusually windy location, 
its spreading tendency should be thwarted as much as 
possible by severe pruning, for the wood is weak and 
brittle. Close forks should be prevented as much as 
possible. The wood of the elm is stronger and tougher ; 
the fork is its weak point. When it will not disfigure the 
tree, one of the branches should be cut off. The essential 
forks can be strengthened by boring a hole through both 
branches about two or three feet above the fork and putting 
in a long bolt well washered at both ends. This will often 
prevent breakage and preserve the natural shape of the 
tree. Conifers never need pruning except in the case of 
dead or injured limbs, with the exception of arborvitae or 
red cedar when used in a hedge. The commonest reason 
for pruning is to clean the lower limbs from the trunk so 
that one can walk under the tree. This can always be 
safely done, but it should be remembered that this low 
branching is one of the chief beauties of some trees, 
especially such conifers as spruce, balsam and larch. 



Arboriculture and Ornamental Planting 269 

How to prune 

The limb should be cut close to the main stem with a 
smooth, even cut. No long stubs should be left. Care 
should be taken not to let the limb break off when partially 
cut and skin the main stem. This can be prevented by 
cutting a little on the underside first. When the limb 
has been removed, the wound should be covered over with 
grafting wax, tar or white lead to prevent the entrance 
of fungi spores. Pruning is best done in the early spring 
before growth starts. 

ORNAMENTAL TREES 

Entire books have been written on the arrangement of 
trees in ornamental planting and only the briefest mention 
of the most important points can be made here. In the 
first place it must be remembered when a tree is planted 
that it is going to grow, and due allowance must be made for 
its ultimate size. Do not plant too close to the house or 
porch. Never plant directly in front of a window unless 
for the purpose of blocking some unattractive outlook. 
If there is any good view or object of interest in the vicin- 
ity, bear it in mind and keep the view of it open. If there 
is any objectionable view, blot it out. Always keep an 
opening or two to the main road and the approach to the 
house. Too man}'^ trees are better than too few; they 
can easily be cut out. Some open lawn is desirable ; do 
not scatter trees everywhere, group them or bank them 
around the edges. If the shape of a tree is its chief beauty, 
place it in the open where it may be seen to advantage. 

The following tables give the characteristics and uses 
of our more important ornamental trees. 



esHvwa'jj 


a 
o 

§! 


4) 

»'£ a 


o 


Limbs 
continu- 
ally 
falling 

Plant cut- 
tings from 
staminate 
tree and 
avoid 


cotton 
More rapid 
growth 

Same as 
Carolina 


exMioj 
avg 




Q 




Very 
dirty 

Dirty, 
short 
lived 


: J 


SiNIOJ 

aooQ 


.2 bo 

1^- 


Rapid 
growth, 
many 
small 
limbs, 

branches 
low, 
hardi- 





Odd 

Rapid 
growth 


= 


aaxvov 

-JOHd AV.OII 






' 


= = 


: : 


HXAVOHQ 




-0 

>''ft 


- 


= 


■ 


aoy 






- 


: 


- • 


aea 


X 03 o 


ment 
Screen 
or 

wind- 
break 


: 


Orna- 
ment 

Shade 
tree 


z 


aovnoj 

JO 
AXISNaQ 


IS 


a 

1 3 


= 


Thin 

Me- 
dium 


- 


ilAHJ 


m 


ft-l 


' 


= - 


- 


IVHOJ 


. ft 

.OS'S 


Gi- 
ft's 


' 


Round 
crown 
droop- 
ing 

Fan- 
shaped 


: : 


axig 


gft 




- 


: 


: 


Aaavjj 


£.2 




£.2 

1^ 


Every- 
where, 
best in 
East 

Every- 
where 


Probably 
over 
entire 
region 


OHIXNaiOg 


J3 03 


.2^ 
1"^ 




Ima 
Salix 
baby- 
lonica 

Pop- 
ulus 
del- 
toides 




ajMV>j 

NOWKOQ 


ll 


© o 


0=^ 


Weep- 
ing 
Willow 

Cotton- 
wood 


Caro- 
lina 
Poplar 

Norway 
Poplar 



_ 


«*-» 


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o 








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fa. 9 d M '3 


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93HVwaa 


Poor 
growth on 
prairies 

Fair 


O .3 

O 03 


Protected, 
hard to 
grow 


SiNIOJ 

avg 


Slow 
growth 

None 


aooo 


Fine 
form, 
splen- 
did 
shade 

Fine 
form. 


splen- 
did 
shade, 
rapid 
growth 


Fine 
form, 
splen- 
did 
shade, 
beauti- 
ful in 
fall 


asi,\oy 

-dOHj; MOJJ 


Seed 




Seed or 
seed- 
ling 


HXAVoao 
.ao aiva 


Rather 
slow 

Rapid 


a 


Rather 
slow 

Fair 


aoy 


Indef- 
inite 


o3 

a :§ 


Indefi- 
nite 


asQ 


Shade 


1 ^ 


Shade 
or 
street 


aovnog 

,40 

AiiSNaa 


Very 
dense 


5>" oj 


Ex- 
treme- 

dense 


iinag 


Acorn 


^ a 


Dry 
samara 


KHOg 


Wide- 
spread- 
ing 


a 

OS 
CO 


Round 
crown 
wide- 
spread 


axig 


Good 
soil 

Fair 
soil 




Good 
soil 


Aaavjj 


Whole 
region, 
best 
east 
Miss. 




Entire 
region 

Entire 
region 
except 
far 
North 


oiJiujaiog 


Quercus 
alba 

Quercus 
rubra 


Quercus 

minor 

Quercus 

coc- 


cmea 
Acer 
sac- 
cha- 
rum 

Acer 
plata- 
noides 


NOWWOQ 


White 
Oak 

Red 
Oak 


Post 
Oak 

Scarlet 
Oak 


Sugar 
Maple 

Norway 
Maple 



1 o 


<D 






1 




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T3 










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tl '^ 


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jd" 










ja" 
















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a; ft^ n..H 




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growt 
good 
form, 
great 
hardi- 


mis &^ 
sags 


I 

£3 


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2&- 

&23 


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o-S Si 


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'3 




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S'3 


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■43 'S) 






£.2 




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£.2 

■-5 bO 










l-p 


















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Sat; 


z; 




r- 










^° 




Acer 
sac- 
cha- 


a 

3 
3 






T3 
^ 1 S 
S <U 3 
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03 
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t-5 


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01 

^.^03 


<u 


03 ^ 
3 o3 
03S 


3 

a) 




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"3 1 'K g 




t-'ft 








0) 






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(I 




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t,j5 




03 


















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m 


3 




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£m^ 


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P-i 





esHvway^ 




No good 


fta"S 


: 


1 t4 


o 

S e ii 


SXNIOJ 

avg 










o 




SiNIOJ 

aooo 




Fair 
shade, 
pretty 
bark 

Fair 
shade, 
pretty 


5£« 


: 


2 
"C 

03 
> 


Branches 
to 

ground, 
many 
limbs 


aaxvov 

-cIOH<J MOH 


O 1 y_ 
02 


: 


02 


: 


. 


= 


HIMOHO 


'I 


: 


"2 

'a 




% 


: 


aoy 


O > 

IB 




bo's 




: 


' 


asn 




Orna- 
ment 
and . 
shade 


2 a t- c 

XS30E 


=3 S 

6^ 


: 


^ a 
(S a S 

C2 Q> fc- 


aovnoj 
ao 

AXISNaQ 




c 
IS 


il 


a 
IS 
H 




a 

ID 

Q 


iinsji 


Km 

a 
eu 




01 

a 

O 

O 


: 


: 




reaoj 


S3 




1 a 
o « o 


a 


= 


"3 

1 


aiig 




"3 "S 
fa fe 


J«S30 


1^ 


: 


01 


AaHVJJ 




Entire, 
best 
east 

Miss. 
East 
Miss. 


2i2 

■.3 3) 

a Ji 




: 


: 


awvN 
oiaixNiaiog 




Betula 
lutea 

Betula 
lenta 


III 


1^ 


sinosa 
Pinus 

ex- 

celsa 
Pinus 


aus- 
triaca 
Picea 
cana- 
densis 


awvN 

N0WW03 




Birch 

Yellow 

Birch 

Sweet 
Birch 


1^ 




•5« 


trian 
Pine 
White 
Spruce 





■2 


& 

lis 




a; 


a 


^^1 






a 
. 

J3 'E 


£ 
>, 

IN 


3 

"a 


-a a 


Mo 


.2 


T3 




■5 -g O 














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o3 


3-°" 


^ 


^ 


P.2S 




^a 


a 


«p^ 


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g^a 




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P. 


1 


1 i 
1" 


II 






is 









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Q 


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: 


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T3 
















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ca 










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u 












































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■« 


ty 






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:: 










£2 

■^ Si) 


■■2 5f 


3 

■5-P 0:3-5 

SS3g§ 


W« 














^° 












w^ 


£ 


03 






"3 


a 


c3 ca 


a 

■0 


X.J, 




i 

0) 


^ 2 
S i S 1 

2 3 O 
1^ 


1 cj 1 , 

a 3 Jg g 


IB ca 




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, 




































II 






3 -ia 


3 

c 


a^ 
» 




I'd 

^2 











Is 


^^s 

°^-> 


^0 



esavpia^ 


Lends 
variety 

One of our 

best 

street or 

driveway 

trees 
Peculiar 

bark on 

small 

branches 
Does not 

need as 

much 

pruning 

as elm on 

prairies 


exNioj 
avg 


Subject 
to 
insects 

Soft 
berries 


exNioj 
aooo 


^r^ Ti'O^ P- -s'O— c •o'O'O ft 


aaxvov 

-dOHJ .ttOH 


Seed or 
seed- 
ling 


HX.MOHQ 


Fair 
Rapid 

Fair 


aoy 


Long 
lived 


asQ 


Orna- 
ment 

Shade, 
drive- 
way 

Shade 


aovnoji 

AXISMSQ 


Dense 

Fairly 
dense 


xmaj 


Cone 

Dry 

sa- 
mara 

Drupe 


ivaoa 


Long, 
conical 
crown 

Fan- 
shaped 

More of 
an oval 
crown 

Fan- 
shaped 


axis 


Fairly 
good 
soil 

Almost 
any 


AaHVJJ 


Entire 
region 
except 
North 

Entire 
region 


awvjsi 
oidixNaiog 


Pseuda- 
tsuga 
taxi- 
folia 

Ulmus 
am- 
eri- 
cana 

Ulmus 
race- 
mosa 

Celtis 
occi- 
den- 
talis 


awvN 

XOWNOQ 


Red 
Fir 

White 
Elm 

Winged 
Elm 

Hack- 
berry 



CHAPTER XIII 
HISTORY OF THE FOREST 

So many new problems have confronted the people of 
this country that we are too likely to think that all our 
difficulties are peculiar to our own conditions. Forestry 
is commonly considered as a brand new theory all our own, 
a theory which many think not needed or altogether im- 
practicable. We forget that the countries of Europe were 
at one time as "new" and as unsettled as our own, and 
have since passed through the same stages of development 
and many more besides. 

We look to our frontiers for our necessary supply of 
timber and do not realize with what rapidity those fron- 
tiers are becoming cut-over and settled regions or that a 
time will come in no very distant future when the frontiers, 
in the present sense of the word, will have ceased to exist. 
The same was true in Europe, but the frontiers have long 
ago disappeared and they have learned to produce their 
timber like their other crops in the heart of the settled 
region, and produce them successfully at a good profit 
to the owners and to the state. It has long ceased to be 
an experiment with them and is recognized as being abso- 
lutely necessary to the country's welfare. A brief review 
of that development in Germany, the most progressive of 
the European states in that line, will aid us in getting the 
proper view point for understanding our own conditions. 

277 



278 The Farm Woodlot 

At the time when the Eastern tribes invaded Germany, 
that country was practically an unbroken forest and the 
tribes living there were of a wandering character. The . 
needs of their civilization, or rather of their barbarism, 
were few and their demands upon the forest practically 
none. Their life was very much like that of our eastern 
Indians. Their fuel was supplied by the dead wood on 
the ground and they cut practically no standing timber. 

When these tribes settled down to village life in a per- 
manent location, it became necessary to build substantial 
houses of wood, and fields had to be cleared for agricultural 
purposes. That meant the cutting away of the forest. 
This opening thus started was necessarily steadily enlarged 
from year to year. The villages grew in population and 
needed larger areas for the raising of their food supplies. 
With the demand for firewood for so many persons concen- 
trated in one place for so long a time, the dead timber no' 
longer sufficed and the supply had to be drawn from the 
standing timber. Moreover, the more complicated system 
of village life was constantly developing new uses for wood. 
And we must remember that wood fulfilled many more 
purposes then than it does with us, for the use of the metals 
was very little known. 

With the establishment of village life came the idea of 
private ownership of land. The house with the surround- 
ing garden was private property, the pasture was the com- 
mon property of the village, but the forest was not as yet 
considered as property at all. It was used by any one and 
every one as a source of wood and as a hog pasture, for when 
the forest was composed of beech and oak, the mast was con- 
sidered of as much or even more importance than the wood. 



History of the Forest 279 

The first idea of the forest really belonging to any one 
came with the conquering Romans. According to their 
law, all the unsettled portion of a conquered country be- 
came the property of the ruler, and so the forest became the 
property of the new kings. They had little use for it ex- 
cept as hunting grounds and managed it accordingly. 
They protected the game, making it a greater offense to 
kill a deer than a man, but they did not interfere with the 
use of the forest for fuel and pasturage. This privilege 
was the only source of the peasants' wood supply, de- 
pendent entirely upon the favor of the king. 

The king granted much of this forest land to his nobles, 
who in turn created game preserves and cared nothing for 
the forest itself. The peasants continued to secure their 
fuel and pasturage in the same way, and the continuance 
of this practice finally constituted it a right, which the 
nobles no longer had the power to take away. 

In spite of this free use of the forest that the villages en- 
joyed, they suffered from a shortage of wood at a very early 
date. The supply in the immediate neighborhood of the 
towns was used up and the difficulty of transporting such 
bulky material more than a few miles made the vast areas 
of forest on the frontiers almost useless to the towns, — 
it was out of their reach. There were no railroads nor 
adequate road systems of any kind ; therefore the towns 
on the rivers were the only ones which could draw on the 
timber supply of distant regions. This was an important 
factor in the rapid growth of the river towns. With the 
growth of the towns the timber famine became more 
acute. 

It is interesting to read some of the laws that were passed 



280 The Farm Woodlot 

to remedy this evil. The size of houses and the number of 
houses that could be built were regulated. The use of the 
green bush as a tavern sign was forbidden. The use of 
coffins was prohibited in Austria and canvas bags used to 
save Avood. No wood could be shipped from one dis- 
trict to another and the bakers of one town were even 
prevented from baking bread for their neighbors of another 
town unless the customer brought his wood with him. 
Of course these measures postponed the day when the 
present supply would be exhausted, but only postponed it. 
It was at this time that a few far-sighted men took warning 
from existing conditions, foresaw the inevitable timber 
famine and realized the temporary nature of the relief 
obtained by restrictions which were being placed on the 
use of wood. They knew that something must be done to 
increase the supply, and there was evidently but one way 
to do this, — to grow trees. 

The conception of this idea was closely followed by 
laws aimed at the renewal of forests instead of the restric- 
tion of consumption. These measures were at first inade- 
quate because so little was known of the growth of trees 
and the necessary measures of culture. It was a subject 
which had never before received any attention and there 
were no trained men to take charge of or direct the work. 
Every plan tried was in the nature of an experiment. No 
one even knew how long it would take to grow a tree. 
Some believed in the planting of seedlings grown in nurs- 
eries, while others argued for the use of the seedlings that 
grow naturally under the old trees in the forest. . 

The work was further hindered by the fact that the idea 
of the forest as a hunting ground rather than a source of 



History of the Forest 281 

timber still persisted. The protection of the game was 
still considered of paramount importance by the nobles 
who owned the larger part of the forests, and for more 
than a century the control of the forests as wood-pro- 
ducers was in the hands of the game wardens. Moreover, 
the peasants' rights of usage, which had become so firmly 
established that it was impossible to stop them, were now 
found to interfere seriously with the proper handling of 
the forests. 

However, the proper solution of the problem had been 
found, and the work developed rapidly. Schools were 
established for the training of men to take care of the for- 
ests, and experiment stations worked out the best methods 
of treatment. It was recognized as an important factor 
in the nation's welfare and placed on an independent basis. 
Long before the development of transportation facilities 
made possible the cutting of the last of the natural forests 
and before the pinch of the timber famine was very seri- 
ously felt, there were mature forests that had been planted 
out and cared for in systematic manner. 

Every stick of timber that Germany uses to-day has been 
grown froni seed under a definite system of management 
and as carefully cultivated as Siny crop in the country. 
This management has been so successful that every acre 
of forest land in the government forests yields a net revenue 
to the state annually averaging about $2.50. Some forests 
yield as high as $12.50 an acre. Moreover, they are fur- 
nishing steady employment to hundreds of thousands of 
men throufhout the country and thus distributing millions 
of dollars among the classes most in need. 

Many of the cities manage their own municipal forests 



282 The Farm Woodlot 

and manage them to such advantage that their taxes are 
considerably Hghtened, and in some cases done away with 
altogether. Associations and other organizations seek 
revenue in this manner, and many private owners realize 
the value of the investment though they have not as yet 
developed their systems to the same degree as the govern- 
ment. 

Such is the status of the forests in many of the countries 
of Europe, those which are the most progressive and most 
prosperous. Some of the countries of southern Europe 
have been slow to take up the work. They are mostly 
the states that are backward in every form of development, 
and they are now suffering from their lack of foresight. 
All of them have their progress retarded by lack of timber 
and are paying out large sums for wood imports, while their 
own neglected forest areas, instead of yielding a revenue, 
are lying idle and becoming more and more worthless from 
year to year. In some localities, such as Greece and Spain, 
the country has been reduced almost to desert conditions. 
All of them have now realized their mistake and are spend- 
ing large sums of money to place their forests on a paying 
basis. They are the oldest countries of Europe in civiliza- 
tion, and it would have meant hundreds of millions of dol- 
lars to them if they had stopped this leak centuries ago. 

THE NORTH AMERICA EXPERIENCE 

Now let us turn for a moment to the development of 
North America. When the first settlers came to this 
continent on the Atlantic coast, they found an endless 
forest extending from Canada to Florida. There was 
practically no open land of any considerable extent. 



History of the Forest 283 

Clearings had to be made to secure even the little space 
necessary for the building of villages. The clearing of 
fields for crops was a tremendous undertaking. Timber 
was the one thing of which the early settlers had a great, 
and to them worthless, superfluity, — for there was no 
local market and the facilities for export were very insuffi- 
cient. Naturally the settler came to look upon the forest 
as his most formidable enemy ; it hindered his early move 
in the development of the country and fostered the wild 
animals and still wilder Indians. No wonder he looked 
on the forest as something to be destroyed and handed the 
feeling down to his children, completely overlooking the 
almost invaluable benefit that he was receiving from such 
an abundant supply of cheap lumber. 

For a hundred years after the first settlement, no man 
traveled far enough west to discover a country that was 
not heavily wooded. The question of timber supply never 
entered their heads, for the supply seemed to them truly 
inexhaustible and under the circumstances the conception 
of a lack of wood was inconceivable. A very small per- 
centage of the wood that had to be cut for other purposes 
could be u^ed, and enormous quantities of it had to be 
burned to get rid of it. Little was cut for the value of the 
wood itself. 

Only as the towns developed was there any call for wood 
from a distance, and even then the geography of the 
country was such as to hide from them the distance to 
which the forest frontiers were being driven. Lack of 
transportation in inland Europe had given the people 
early warning of what would eventually take place in the 
country as a whole. In America the settlements were all 



284 The Farm Woodlot 

on the coast, and innumerable rivers of unheard-of size 
stretched far inland to float the timber from the interior 
down to the settlements on the coasts. 

Unfortunately for the conservation interests, about the 
time that the depleting of the local supply on the coast 
might have become apparent, the introduction of the 
railroad and the improvement of inland waterways made 
it possible to tap the vast resources of the lake region for 
the benefit of the East. Thus the idea of an inexhaustible 
supply, — later to prove so dangerous, — was given re- 
newed strength. And so continuous and all-sufficient has 
been the supply poured into the older and more thickly 
settled sections from more and more distant forests that 
people have been slow to learn how nearly the "inexhaust- 
ible forests" have been exhausted. 

The once unbroken forests of the Northeast are now, 
with the exception of certain parts of the mountainous 
country, reduced to scattered remnants of culled-over 
woodland incapable of supplying any considerable part of 
the local demand. The vast forests of Michigan alone 
were at one time considered sufficient to supply the world 
forever. Yet so rapid has been our increase in population 
and so unprecedented our development that those forests 
have been practically wiped out, and Michigan is already 
out of the race as a timber producer. Wisconsin and 
Minnesota had the same fate, and now this whole great 
nation, larger and more timber hungry than ever, has 
only the West and the South to look to for her future sup- 
ply. The timber of the Rocky Mountains is incon- 
siderable when it comes to answering the demands of the 
whole country and the possibilities of the South and West 



History of the Forest 285 

are definitely limited. Yet the idea of an inexhaustible 
timber supply, ground into the people for over a century, 
persists. Washington shingles are sold in Boston, and 
Louisiana pine is common on the Chicago market, but the 
status of our timber supply is not heeded. 

Some twenty-five or thirty years ago, a few far-sighted 
men who knew the history of European countries began to 
realize that measures were necessary to prevent a real 
timber famine in the United States. Unfortunately very 
little was known of the amount of timber still standing. 
That there was danger of a timber famine was true enough, 
but it was very hard to make the people believe this, and 
some wild predictions that later proved to be very wide of 
the mark hurt the cause. 

Moreover, these first enthusiasts adopted the wrong 
methods. The abundance and consequent cheapness of 
timber forced wasteful methods. The quality of timber 
cut in the early days led them to demand the higher grades 
and refuse any lumber inferior to what they had been 
using. The culling out of these higher grades caused 
tremendous waste. Only the largest trees could be cut 
and only a small part of those utilized. There was no 
market for the poorer stuff. The apparent worthlessness 
of this culled forest and the cheapness of timber generally 
led to the ignoring of forest fires and it became the regular 
thing for culled land to burn over, destroying the small 
growth and doing irreparable damage to the adjoining 
virgin forest. The fires destroyed far more than was uti- 
lized. No attempt was made to save young timber or to 
utilize more completely the large trees. 

The promoters of forestry placed the blame for this 



286 The Farm Woodlot 

waste on the lumbermen, who were really responsible to 
only a very small degree. The people demanded cheap 
lumber and refused everything but the very best quality. 
Such lumber as they demanded then can hardly be bought 
now at any price. The lumbermen had either to furnish' 
what was wanted or go out of business. The result was, 
as we have shown, a criminal waste, but the people were 
responsible, and the lumbermen were only the agents, 
practically forced to act as they did. Under these condi- 
tions, it was only human nature that the lumbermen should 
resent being called robbers and vandals. Thus it was that 
they were turned against the movement when their support 
and cooperation was what was most needed to give it 
stamina. 

As in almost every new movement, the first supporters 
to rally to the cause were sentimentalists, travelers who 
had visited Europe and been caught by the glamour of the 
beautiful orderly forests and the universal respect and 
reverence for trees. It was the sentiment of the thing 
that attracted them, not the usefulness. Naturally they 
wanted to see this order of things introduced into their own 
country. They knew nothing of the conditions here nor 
of the fitness of their schemes, but they insisted vigorously 
and vociferously on their adoption. This persistent clam- 
oring, with the great truths back of it, gained them many 
followers. The strength of the movement forced legisla- 
tion and some general laws were passed, directed toward 
the conservation of forests. Little more than this could 
be done because those back of the movement did not know 
definitely what they wanted to do nor how to do it. The 
timber interests that really could have accomplished some- 



History of the Forest 287 

thing if they had been properly directed held aloof on 
account of the unreasonable attacks upon them and the 
impracticable nature of the measures proposed. Those 
measures, if put into practice at that time, would have 
killed the lumber industry. 

FOREST SERVICE IN THE UNITED STATES 

In 1881, the government appointed a forester but gave 
him little authority and no appropriations, because it was 
not known definitely what his duties were or what he ought 
to do. His work was confined necessarily to collecting 
data and making reports on forest condition. 

As early as 1799, Congress passed an act for the pur- 
chase and protection of certain cedar and live oak timber 
for ship building for the Navy. This act was confirmed 
and reenacted several times up to 1831, but nothing im- 
portant ever came of it. The action was rather spasmodic, 
but it shows that even at this early date there was some 
apprehension in regard to the exhaustion of certain kinds 
of timber for special purposes of importance. It perhaps 
had its origin in the action of England which had long been 
accustomed to reserve especially fine trees for this purpose. 
Nothing further was done to encourage tree planting and 
forest preservation till 1872 when J. Sterling Morton 
through the State Board of Agriculture inaugurated Arbor 
Day in Nebraska. Such a day has since been recognized 
by every state in the Union. The next year, 1873, Con- 
gress passed the Timber Culture Act, by which title could 
be obtained to 160 acres of prairie land if 40 acres of it 
were planted to trees according to certain specifications. 
This law was well meant, but so framed that its terms 



288 The Farm Woodlot 

were continually avoided, and it led to a great deal of fraud. 
Moreover, the poorly handled plantations and excuses 
for plantations were largely unsuccessful and brought 
discredit upon prairie tree-planting generally. 

In the meanwhile, the marvelous extension of the rail- 
roads after the Civil War and various acts of Congress, — 
such as the Homestead, Desert Land, and Timber and 
Stone acts, — to encourage settlement, hastened the de- 
struction of the forest to an alarming degree. 

Emerson Hough brought the matter to the attention 
of the American Society for the Advancement of Science 
and was in 1877 appointed special agent by that body to 
make a detailed report on forestry. The result of that 
report was the establishment of the Division of Forestry 
in the Department of Agriculture. The office thus es- 
tablished gave forestry official recognition, which helped, 
but that is about all it accomplished. The forester was 
left almost wholly without funds or support and could 
do little besides educational work by means of reports. 

The Timber Culture Act was the cause of so much fraud 
that it was repealed in 1891 and with its repeal came the 
first big step in advance. The same bill that repealed the 
Timber Culture Act gave to the President the right to 
create forest reserves by proclamation. President Harri- 
son immediately took advantage of it to set aside about 
17,000,000 acres of forest reserves. They were under the 
charge of the Department of the Interior, but lack 
of funds made it impossible to do anything with 
them ; however, they were of tremendous importance 
because they marked the beginning of an almost contin- 
uous advancement. These reservations were challenged 



History of the Forest 289 

at one time, were suspended for a while, but they were 
afterwards restored. 

The Division of Forestry for some years attempted to 
introduce better lumbering methods and the more con- 
servative use of our forests, but they were met on every 
hand with ignorance and adverse economic conditions. 
The abundance of timber made lumber too cheap for any 
one to pay much attention to the growing of forests, and 
the splendid transportation facilities blinded the mass of 
the people to the rapid disappearance of the forests. It 
was up-hill work, but the movement steadily gathered 
strength. In the meanwhile a large amount of valuable 
data was collected on the growth, habits and handling of 
our trees. 

In spite of all difficulties, the government work grew 
rapidly in scope and volume as the people became better 
educated and better acquainted with existing conditions. 
The Division of Forestry became a Bureau, and in 1905 
when the national forest reserves, then grown to over 
100,000,000 acres, were transferred from the control of the 
Interior Department to the Agricultural Department, 
the Bureau grew to the Forest Service, an office of the 
same grade as the Reclamation Service. The work of 
the Service has since that time been concentrated on the 
development of the reserves. 

There was for several years a great deal of opposition 
to these reserves. The name gave the impression that 
the forests and everything else in the boundaries were to be 
reserved from use ; that they were to be kept as they were 
till some future date and for a future generation. That 
was the common idea of forestry, — the withholding from 



290 The Farm Woodlot 

use of all available timber. Nor could people be expected to 
have any different idea when the supporters of forestry 
were everywhere quoting "Woodman, spare that tree" 
and indulging in bitter tirades against the lumbermen and 
the cutting of timber. Of course such a policy did not 
appeal to practical men. 

When the forest reserves were transferred to the control 
of the Forest Service, they were renamed National Forests 
and every effort made to show that they were meant for 
use, the most complete use, and not to be stored away in 
idleness for an indefinite future. The subsequent handling 
of these National Forests has done much to emphasize 
this. The free use of the timber by the small settler has 
been practically unrestricted and the lumber companies 
have been sold stumpage at reasonable rates and allowed 
to cut mature trees as rapidly as provision could be made 
for a future crop. The restrictions put on the method of 
cutting have not been burdensome. The grazing regula- 
tions, at first thought to be prohibitive and a most unjust 
imposition, have been found to be a boon to the country 
and a most effective scheme for the more complete utiliza- 
tion of the grazing lands. 

The sentimental side had played its part, and that an 
important one, in forcing the attention of the people. 
It accomplished this as no other phase of the question could 
have done. Now, however, when the first stage of en- 
thusiasm was over and the work of actual development 
began, its memory remained as a hindrance. The scheme 
proposed by the first sentimentalists was so visionary that 
the whole system of forestry remained discredited in the 
eyes of business men for some years. Nevertheless, 



History of the Forest 291 

forestry is strictly a business proposition. On account of 
the long time element involved, it is a business that is 
better handled by the state or other long-lived corporations, 
but it may also be made a paying proposition for the in- 
dividual owner. It is based on strictly business principles. 
Far from keeping the virgin forests untouched for the use 
of future generations as the sentimentalists proposed, the 
forester cuts his timber just as soon as it ceases to earn 
a reasonable percentage of profit. He cannot afford to 
have land that might be growing young timber occupied 
by old trees that have ceased to grow ; this is poor forestry 
because it is poor business. The only difference between 
a forester and a lumberman is that the former never cuts 
till he is assured of a second crop and a consequent higher 
value of his cut-over land, and the latter works for the 
highest possible present cut regardless of the future ; each 
is working for the highest money revenue from the land as 
he sees it. 

The forester works for a good reproduction before he 
cuts his first crop, because he does not want the land to 
be idle for a minute. He conducts cultural methods to 
increase the rate of growth so that the mature timber may 
be secured sooner and his profits be correspondingly larger. 
He cuts carefully that there may be less waste ; he selects 
poor soil that his rent may be low and the profit high. 
Every one of these measures is governed by the principles 
of profit and loss ; none of them by sentiment. Whether 
the forest be for the production of timber, the protection 
of mountain slopes or for esthetic purposes, the question 
of profit is never forgotten. The financial outcome is 
always considered as the true basis and is changed only as 



292 The Farm Woodlot 

much as the chief purpose of protection or ornament 
demands. 

The Forest Service is planning to raise the most valuable 
crops possible to be grown on its true timberlands, make 
as much money as it can on the protected slopes and at the 
same time get the best protection, plant up the open spaces 
that do not furnish good grazing, and so regulate the 
stock on the grazing land that the highest possible number 
of stock will be accommodated and the quality of the 
range improved ; all measures for the very best use of all 
the land that comes under its jurisdiction. The motto 
of the forester is always complete use, never useless reser- 
vation. 

It is clear that forestry in this country has already 
reached an advanced stage on the government forests and 
a complicated system is being rapidly built up. Techni- 
cally trained men are necessary for carrying out the work, 
and their training is little less thorough than that for other 
professions. This book, however, does not propose to 
take up those details that are necessary only in the han- 
dling of large tracts of forest land. Only those phases of 
the work that are applicable to the farm woodlot will be 
considered in a handbook for the farmer who wishes to 
handle his woodlot to the best advantage. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FORESTS IN CANADA 

The development of the forests in Canada has not 
followed exactly the same lines as in the United States. 
This is due partly to the character of the forests them- 
selves, partly to the slow rate of settlement and partly to 
the form of government. 



History of the Forest 293 

As in the United States, the forests in Canada are lo- 
cated on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts with a Inroad 
stretch of treeless prairie in between. There is one great 
difference. In the United States the forests extend to 
the northern boundary; in Canada there are millions of 
acres which lie within the grasp of the frozen north beyond 
the limit of merchantable tree growth. Moreover, this 
great tundra region is incapable of ever producing any 
merchantable forests and the same is true of a considerable 
portion of the northern plains. 

There is also a great difference in the composition of the 
two forests. Owing to the northern latitude and conse- 
quently severe climate of Canada, the number of species 
in the forest is much smaller than in the more southern 
country. Spruce becomes the predominant genus in the 
coniferous forests instead of pine, and the hardwoods are 
confined to the less desirable species such as birch, poplar 
and elm. The magnificent hardwood forests of oak, 
hickory, yellow poplar, walnut and buckeye found in the 
southern Appalachians and the Ohio valley are entirely 
lacking. Nor is the development of the northern species 
with the single exception of white spruce as good as in the 
South. On the Pacific coast the forests more nearly com- 
pare with those of the northern Cascades. 

As in the United States, the first settlements along 
the Atlantic coast were made in a countrj'- of unbroken 
forest, and the movement westward to the treeless prairies 
was much slower. Hudson Bay trappers brought in many 
reports of the vastness of the northern country, but failed 
to give any detailed account of the timber there. The 
natural inference was that the whole country was timbered 



294 The Farm Woodlot 

like the Atlantic coast. The result was an almost un- 
shakable belief in the existence of an inexhaustible timber 
supply which should suffice all Canada's needs forever. 
This impression spread to the United States, and the mass 
of the people there beheve that they can turn to Canada 
for wood when their own supply is exhausted. This idea 
of an inexhaustible timber supply was no less fatal to 
the early development of forestry in Canada than it had 
been in the United States, and no more easily dispelled. It 
stands out to-day as one of the most formidable obstruc- 
tions to the settlement of an efficient forest poUcy, though 
investigations have long ago proved its falsity. 

Estimates of the extent of the merchantable forests in 
Canada, all based on fragmentary and insufficient data, 
vary widely. Probably the best guess is around three 
hundred million acres. This is only about three-fifths of 
the area of the merchantable forests in the United States, 
and altiiough the export lumber trade has been rather 
heavy, it is safe to say that far the larger part of the re- 
maining supply will be needed for the now rapidly growing 
population of Canada. 

In the earUer days the export trade in lumber was 
heavier than it is to-day. The concentration of the popu- 
lation on the Atlantic coast, the network of desirable 
and navigable streams leading to the sea and the close 
relationship of Canada to the northern country, which 
was dependent upon imports for the whole wood supply, 
made this almost inevitable. The lack of inland trans- 
portation facilities made its later decline quite as natural. 
The development of the transcontinental railroads led 
the settlers to the open prairies of the West and opened 



History of the Forest 295 

up a new and ever growing market to consume the lumber 
supply at home. Up to the time when the expansion on to 
the prairies took place, and that movement was compara- 
tively late in coming, the growth in population had been 
rather slow, and the effects of the heavy logging along the 
Atlantic coast had not been severely felt. 

These conditions have served as a disadvantage to 
Canada, but her close relations with England have been 
distinctly to her advantage. England had, even before 
the settlement of Canada, long been dependent on out- 
side sources for her timber supply. Her naval supremacy 
in those days of wooden ships made her especially anxious 
to conserve anything which might serve as ship timbers. 
The French had ordered reservations of such timber as 
early as 1683, and when the British occupied the country 
they enlarged the reservations. In 1763 and 1775 reserva- 
tions were ordered in every township. These orders were 
not very strictly enforced on account of the behef of the 
' ' inexhaustible supply. ' ' 

It was not until 1879 that the home government adopted 
the policy of reserving to the crown all the timberland 
not already granted. But vast tracts of timber had al- 
ready passed into the hands of private individuals. Under 
the French, all of the land had originally belonged to the 
king, who granted them to others under feudal tenure. 
A trading company controlled the whole country in this 
way up to 1663, when the failure of the company termi- 
nated the relationship. This was followed by the prac- 
tice of granting to individuals, through court favor, large 
tracts of land as gifts, on condition that they should be 
regranted to colonists. The result of this was to make the 



296 The Farm Woodlot 

colonists practically the serfs of the original grantees, 
which condition was terminated only in 1854 by the home 
government freeing the colonists through the indemni- 
fication of the noblemen. The land then passed to the 
colonists. The EngUsh continued the practice of granting 
land to soldiers, to individuals and to the Church. An 
order to reserve every seventh section for the support 
of the Protestant Church was largely responsible for the 
Papinean rebellion in 1837. The lands withdrawn for 
the purpose were later sold and the proceeds turned over 
to the cities for educational purposes. Other large tracts, 
either through grant or sale, have passed into private 
hands, and numberless small tracts have been turned over 
to the settlers in the same way. Fifty million acres were 
granted to the railroads as an aid to their constru<^tion. 

Thus in one way or another the larger part of the land 
in the eastern provinces passed out of the control of the 
government. These conditions are, however, reversed 
in the western provinces, and in the Dominion as a whole 
the larger part of the forest lands still belong to the 
crown, some eight miUion acres. Of this enormous area 
about sixty per cent contains scrubby timber fit only for 
local use. 

In 1826 the government adopted the policy of allowing 
any one who would pay a fixed stumpage fee to cut timber 
from the crown land. A surveyor-general of woods and 
forests was appointed to collect the revenues. This was 
the first attempt on the part of the state to secure any 
revenues from its forests. This plan was defeated because 
the lumbermen found it cheaper to buy the land on con- 
tract, cut the timber and forfeit the land together with 



History of the Forest 297 

the first payment. This practice, the subversion of gov- 
ernment timber contracts, led to a tangle of graft and cor- 
ruption. 

In 1841, as the result of an investigation of these condi- 
tions, the home government turned over the administra- 
tion of the crown lands to the different provinces. A 
more active control followed, but the efforts were all di- 
rected toward a larger immediate revenue, and no effort 
was made to perpetuate the supply. Timber limits were 
sold on competition bids, the successful bidder securing 
the exclusive right to cut in a certain definite tract and 
paying so much additional for the timber actually cut. 
Many of these limits were held as a speculation. To pre- 
vent this, laws were passed insisting upon the cutting 
of a certain percentage of the holdings each year. A 
tremendous overproduction and consequent fall in the 
market was the inevitable result. All the laws tended to 
force increased cuts in order to bring in larger revenues. 

Out of this chaos the present systems for the sale of 
timber on the crown lands have been slowly developed. 
They are all of the same general character, but v-ary in 
the details of their application in the different provinces. 
Certain definite limits are granted for a certain term of 
years, usually twenty-one years. During this period, 
definite regulations in regard to cutting and manufacture 
must be observed, and the holder must pay a ground rent, 
a fee for the exclusive use of the limit and additional fees 
for all timber cut. The stipulated prices and regulations 
can be changed from time to time as conditions demand. 
An attempt is made to enforce conservative methods. 

As in the United States, a few far-sighted men, notable 



298 The Farm. Woodlot 

Sir Henry Joly de Lotbiniere, had begun early to agitate 
the question of introducing forestry methods and estab- 
lishing forestry branches in the official administration, but 
they could not get a hearing. The beUef in the inexhausti- 
ble timber supply was against them. It was, however, 
their efforts which made possible the progressive move- 
ment following the meeting of the American Forestry 
Congress at Montreal in 1882. At this meeting the fire 
problem formed the chief subject of discussion, and as a 
result of it, various forest fire laws were passed in the 
different provinces. Ontario led in this movement. In 
1885 their laws were strengthened by the initiation of a 
ranger system in which the limit holders paid one-half 
the cost of the rangers, thus giving the lessees a direct 
interest in the protection of the forest. The benefits of 
this system were so marked that it was soon copied in Nova 
Scotia, New Brunswick and Quebec. Even the Dominion 
government followed suit. 

The influence of these protective systems were very 
plainly felt and a very active interest aroused in the wel- 
fare of the forests. They began to take their place among 
the valuable resources of the country. Ontario established 
a bureau of forestry in 1883, but allowed it to degenerate 
into an immigration office in 1907. Quebec placed its 
work on a more permanent basis by placing it in the hands 
of technically trained men, who supervised the cutting on 
leased lands. This work was a success. In 1898 a forestry 
branch was instituted in the Dominion Department of the 
Interior and a Superintendent of Forestry was appointed. 

As in the United States, these officers at first accom- 
pUshed nothing, but they gradually came to practical 



History of the Forest 299 

work. Their most important work for the first few years 
was to keep the needs of forestry before the people. This 
they did very successfully, and out of it came the policy 
of permanent forest reserves. The first reservations 
were made by the Dominion Minister of the Interior 
in 1895, in the Riding and Turtle Mountains, a thinly 
timbered district of Manitoba. Several others were 
added in the same way, and in 1906 they were confirmed 
by Act of Parliament and placed under the Superintendent 
of Forestry, Some ten or twelve million acres have been 
set aside in this way, but the Forestry Branch has nev6r 
been given funds adequately to handle them. 

Ontario followed suit with reservations of some twelve 
milhon acres, and Quebec has followed the same policy 
on a less extensive scale. British Columbia had wasted 
a large portion of her forest area, but in 1909 reserved the 
remainder and started the movement which resulted in a 
very active forestry branch a few years later. 

It is only in the past two or three years that much at- 
tention has been paid to the management of these areas 
along forestry lines, but the movement is now progressing 
rapidly. The various provinces, especially British Co- 
lumbia, are forging ahead, and the Dominion Service is 
developing rapidly. 

In addition to this work of the Provinces and Dominion 
government, the Canadian Pacific Railway has inaugu- 
rated a very active forest policy and now employs more 
foresters than any other institution except the United 
States government. Several of the large paper companies 
are also practicing conservative lumbering and employ- 
ing foresters. 



300 The Farm Woodlot 

The Dominion Branch has estabhshed a large experi- 
ment station on the prairies and has done a great deal, 
by the distribution of free nursery stock, toward the 
planting up of those sections. This work has been a de- 
cided success. 

In 1900 the Canadian Forestry Association was formed 
and has done much toward backing up the government 
departments. It has been of great value in interesting 
the people and lumbermen in the work of the Forestry 
Branch. Since 1905 they have been publishing the Cana- 
dian Forestry Journal as a means of educating the people. 

In 1907 the University of Toronto established a Faculty 
of Forestry with the equipment necessary for a complete 
course of instruction. In 1908 New Brunswick also es- 
tabhshed a department of forestry in the University. 
The Agricultural College at Guelph has for some years 
been offering a course in farm forestry. 

As may be seen from the foregoing, the progress toward 
the application of forestry in the Canadian forests has 
been very slow and dotted with many setbacks, but the 
prospect at present is, on the whole, promising. The 
political interference in the management of the forests — 
which has been the great obstacle in the past — is gradu- 
ally disappearing, and this, together with the rapidly 
increasing timber supply, is awakening the people and the 
government to the necessity of a permanent and construc- 
tive pohcy. Such a policy adopted and the means fur- 
nished to put it into practice, it is not too late for Canada 
to grow her own supply indefinitely. There is plenty of 
available productive land. 



CHAPTER XIV 
FOREST INFLUENCES 

Opinion is very likely to go to extremes in everything, 
but more especially is this true when there is very little 
definite knowledge of the facts, and the imagination has 
full play. The influence of forests on the natural phe- 
nomena within and around them offers a splendidly vague 
field for all kinds of fanciful theories. 

At first no one thought of any such influence. There 
was nothiiig to bring it forcibly to the attention, and what 
little was read of it in foreign books was taken for useless 
theories of the detail-loving Germans. Moreover, the con- 
ditions were not diversified enough to offer different view- 
points. Every place was covered with woods and plenty 
of it. There had been no experience with the open prairies, 
or with cut-over mountain slopes. When the develop- 
ment of the country pushed civilization out over the plains, 
and the great commercial rivers of the East became spas- 
modic in their flow with the clearing of the timber from 
the mountains, people began to read on these subjects in 
the histories of other countries. The newspapers took 
the cue with a will, the possible results of deforestation 
in this country were carried to the limit of the imagination, 
and the theory of forest influence grew apace in the public 
mind. Naturally, public opinion has gone to the other 
extreme and it now attributes to the forest many ridicu- 
lously impossible powers, but there is, nevertheless, a 

301 



302 The Farm Woodlot 

leaven of truth in it all, and the present beliefs, wild as 
they seem, are nearer the facts than no belief at all. 

INFLUENCE ON PRECIPITATION 

The most generally mooted question of to-day is whether 
the forest is the direct cause of greater rainfall, whether 
the precipitation is greater in the forest than in the open 
country ; and if so, how much greater. Belief in such 
influence is used as an argument in favor of planting trees, 
and has considerable weight with many. In spite of its 
prominent place in the public mind, this is probably the 
least important of the forest influences. Competent 
scientific men have been studying this question in Euro- 
pean countries for a century or more, where there are vast 
forests of very dense growth, but they have not as yet 
been able to decide definitely whether that particular in- 
fluence exists or not. If, then, this influence, increase in' 
rainfall, is so small as to be imperceptible in the case of an 
extensive and dense forest, it certainly need not interfere 
with our calculations in the consideration of a small plan- 
tation of a few acres. This factor may be wholly disre- 
garded in all farm forestry. A forest, then, does not in- 
fluence the amount of precipitation, but it does have an 
important influence on the disposal of the precipitation. 
This, in fact, is one of the most important effects of forest 
cover. It directly controls the permanent flow of springs 
and streams. 

INFLUENCE ON RUN-OFF. Fig. 60 

The influence of forest cover on surface run-off was noted 
long ago in other countries and has been forced upon the 



Forest Influences 



303 



attention in this coun- 
try by the cutting of 
the timber in the 
mountainous regions. 
The best examples of 
the results of deforest- 
ation are now to be 
found in China, but 
the records of the pro- 
cess are not to be se- 
cured. The more 
recent denudation of 
the mountains in 
France, though not so 
complete as that in 
China, is more to the 
point, because all the 
records of the process 
from the densely 
wooded mountain 
sides to the bare hills, 
and even the attempts 
at reforestation are 
complete. 

Rainfall is not dis- 
tributed evenly 
throughout the year. 
There are seasons of 
heavy precipitation, 
and seasons of more or 
less severe drought. 




304 The Farm Woodlot 

When the surface of the earth is bare uncovered rock or 
impervious soil, the rainfall runs off in unobstructed streams 
as it falls. The result is a heavy flood, varying in strength 
with the character of the country and the size of the drain- 
age basin, for a short time after the precipitation and then 
a dry stream bed. This is true of the conditions existing 
in a very large part of China and the Mediterranean coun- 
tries, as well as in considerable areas of the United States. 

These conditions are not at all adapted to man's wants. 
His business and even his life is dependent upon an even 
supply of water in the rivers and springs, and this even 
supply can best be secured by keeping the natural water- 
sheds under forest. History and theory agree that this 
will accomplish the purpose. Attempts have been made 
in the United States to find two water-sheds, near together, 
of practically the same area, one forested and one bare, — 
to compare the run-off of the water in the two. It was 
very difficult to find two water-sheds which exactly cor- 
responded to the requirements, but sufficient data has 
been secured to establish the following facts : 

The force of the falling raindrops is so broken by the 
network of limbs and branches that the ground is not 
beaten hard as is the case in the open. The soil remains 
light and permeable ; the organic litter from the trees 
mingled with the surface soil helps to keep it so. The 
water dripping lightly from the branches or sliding down 
the trunks of the trees sinks readily into this permeable 
soil, instead of running quickly over the surface as is the 
case on rock or packed clay. Not until the soil has be- 
come wet to the point of saturation does any moisture 
run from it to the stream bed, which means that an 



Forest Influences 305 

unusually heavy and long-continued rain is necessary to 
cause a flood in a stream whose water-shed is well forested. 
This water that soaks into the ground gradually seeps 
to lower levels and finally emerges from the springs to 
maintain the normal stream flow. Naturally a moderate 
rise in the streams occurs after a prolonged period of 
heavy rainfall, but such a rise can do little or no damage, 
and, as we have seen, a sudden and destructive flood is 
impossible. 

The snow is disposed of by the forest in the same way 
as the rain. The crown cover shuts out the rays of the 
sun and prevents the snow from coming under the heat of 
direct insolation. It is late in the season in the mountain 
regions when the temperature in the shade rises sufficiently 
to melt the snow for any length of time during the day. 
Thus the run-off from the forested mountains is practically 
none when the snow is melting rapidly in the early spring 
in the open and in the lowlands. The water supply from 
this region is kept stored up in the ground and in springs 
as a reserve that keeps the streams flowing through the 
dry months when other sources are exhausted. Observa- 
tion of two streams in California, one with a bare water- 
shed and the other with water-shed well forested, has 
proved this almost conclusively. The streams were 
well located in a region in which there was a distinct rainy 
season followed by absolute drought. The bare water- 
shed sent down its waters immediately after the rain in 
torrential floods carrying away everything movable 
along the banks and making any use of the water impos- 
sible. Shortly after the close of the rainy season, the 
volume of the stream began to decrease rapidly and in two 



306 The Farm Woodlot 

months the stream bed was dry. The forested water- 
shed, on the other hand, absorbed the rainfall in the way 
described above, and, though there was high water in the 
creek during the rainy season, there was no flood to injure 
improvements along the banks. At the close of the rainy 
season, there was very little decrease in the volume of 
stream flow and a fair amount of water flowed in the 
stream bed throughout the dry season, when water is 
most needed and most valuable for irrigation purposes. 

Perhaps as much water comes down from the bare water- 
shed in the course of a year as from the forested one ; 
in fact, probably considerably more water comes from the 
former, for there are several factors that tend to dissipate 
a part of the water that falls on the forested shed. A 
part of the water — the lighter the rain the larger the 
percentage — is intercepted by the crowns of the trees and 
evaporates before it reaches the ground at all. It is also 
a well-known fact that more moisture evaporates, through 
the transpiration of the leaves, over an area covered with 
vegetation than from a bare surface. Also, in the forest 
the water is held in the ground so much longer than in the 
open that there is more opportunity for evaporation in 
that way. Thus, the actual amount of water in the forest- 
born stream in the course of a year is really less than in 
those coming from the bare country ; but seventy -five 
per cent of the latter is lost in flood, is of no value for irri- 
gation purposes or water power and does much damage 
to improvements along its banks, while all the former can 
be utilized all the year round and there is no damage to 
adjacent property. 

Since the cutting of the forests at the headwaters of 



Forest Influences 307 

many of our rivers, disastrous spring floods have developed 
in these streams that do a tremendous amount of damage 
both to shore property and to navigation. Later in the 
summer the water in these same streams reaches such a 
low level that navigation is again impeded and water 
power seriously disabled. The floods, formerly unknown, 
that have of recent years become of annual occurrence in 
the southern Appalachian mountains are said to damage 
improved property alone to the extent of ten million 
dollars annually. The spring flood and consequent sum- 
mer drought in the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers 
above Pittsburgh, besides the enormous damage done in 
that city and in the Ohio valley, greatly impair the navi- 
gation of the Ohio River for five months. Floods in the 
spring make navigation dangerous, and in the summer 
there is not sufficient water for the larger boats to get into 
the upper stream. If the water that now flows down the 
Ohio in a year were evenly distributed throughout the 
seasons, the now coveted nine-foot level would be main- 
tained the year round at Pittsburgh and the navigation 
of the river would be perfectly safe for the largest boats at 
all times. 

All these flood and drought phenomena are now proved, 
as far as such a thing can be proved, and generally ad- 
mitted to be the result of the removal of the forests from 
the water-sheds. Moreover, as has been proved by many 
observations in all parts of the world, springs are affected 
in the same way as the rivers. There were very many ex- 
amples of this in India. As the forests were cleared away, 
the flow of the springs became less and less each dry season 
until it was finally as dry as the remainder of the country. 



308 



The Farm Woodlot 



EROSION. FIG. 61 

We have seen how the forest cover prevents rapid 
surface run-off, conserves the rainfall and consequently 
regulates the flow of the streams. What happens when 







J 






^*''' .A?S' 






Fig. 61. — Land badly eroded as result of clearing and cultivation. 

the forest is cut away ? The removal of the shade opens 
up the ground to the direct insolation and more open 
circulation of the wind. The humus and leaf mold 
which was kept always moist in the sheltered shade of 
the forest is now exposed to alternate wetting and drying. 
Under these conditions it decays very rapidly, all its vege- 
table structure disappears, the leaves and twigs are re- 
duced to fine mineral particles and the bare soil is exposed 
to the driving wind and rain. There is no longer any 



Forest Influences 309 

spongy blanket to absorb the water as it falls and there 
is an immediate surface flow toward the lower valleys. 
This flow gathers volume and velocity as it goes and 
finally joins the torrential streams in the valley in a very 
short time after the rain has fallen. This is the beginning 
of the flood which probably does great damage in the 
valley on the lower stretches of the river, where millions 
have been invested in bridges, quays and other improve- 
ments. 

The exposed mineral soil, heretofore protected and mixed 
with the humus, is, upon the disappearance of the humus, 
a loose mass of mineral particles. A drop of water rolling 
over this surface carries the lightest of the mineral par- 
ticles with it in suspension. As these individual drops 
join and the stream gains in volume and velocity, larger 
particles are carried along with it, until the great mountain 
torrent rolls huge bowlders down its worn bed. The first 
little trickle of water makes an almost imperceptible 
track in the soft earth; the water from the next rain 
naturally follows the track of the first, and the track 
grows deeper. The deeper the cut, the larger the stream 
of water collected in it ; the larger the stream of water, 
the greater its carrying capacity; and so erosion pro- 
ceeds apace. 

First the humus — and with it the fertility of the soil — 
is carried away ; then the surface soil follows, leaving the 
subsoil exposed in great gullies ; finally nothing but rock 
and hard packed gravel remain. This process occurs "in 
every hillside forest that is cut over and abandoned. 
There are millions of acres of cut-over land in the hilly 
parts of the United States now in various stages of erosion. 



310 The Farm Woodlot 

Some are just losing the humus from the surface soil, 
some are in the last stages of rock and gravel. The rapidity 
of the erosion depends largely on the nature of the soil. 
The clay soils of the Mississippi and the foothills of the 
southern Appalachian mountains lend themselves readily 
to this process and become lost to cultivation by this 
means in a few years. The farmer has robbed himself 
of millions of acres of valuable woodland in attempting 
to bring under cultivation mountain land not suited to 
that purpose ; and it now lies worse than a worthless 
waste. 

In France, when the government of the Republic ordered 
the cutting of the forests that had been conserved for 
years under the rule of the monarchy, thousands of square 
miles on the steep slopes of the Alps were eroded to a barren 
waste in just this way. The ground became so gullied 
and so completely robbed of all its fertility that it was im- 
possible to establish any growth on it by ordinary means. 
Everything was washed out of the ground as soon as 
planted. Hundreds of millions of dollars have been 
spent, and hundreds more must yet be spent in the 
future in the building of dams and the digging of ditches 
to hold the floods till vegetation of some kind has secured 
a foothold. 

Sections of Greece, a large part of Asia Minor, Arabia, 
Palestine and all northern Africa and nearly all of 
China have come to their present desert condition from 
former fertility and luxurious vegetation through just 
such process of erosion. It is bound to come to us if we 
persist in clearing the forests from the hillsides. Nor is 
the damage from erosion confined to the hillside districts. 



Forest Influences 311 

The detritus washed from the lands above is deposited 
on the fertile lands in the valleys below. Thousands of 
families were driven from their homes in the most fertile 
valleys of France along the foothills of the Alps because 
two and three feet of sterile debris from the mountains 
were spread over their fields. In our own country the 
floods in the Missouri and Mississippi rivers have many 
times buried the overflowed lands along their banks with 
many feet of sand that absolutely destroys the value 
of the lands for several years to come. This is taking 
place along all our foothill streams and rivers. 

When this sand and debris is not deposited on the over- 
flow lands, it is deposited in the stream bed or along the 
coast near the mouth of the river. Hundreds of miles of 
rivers in the United States have been lost to navigation 
in this way, and the government has spent millions and 
millions of dollars in keeping others open. The govern- 
ment experts estimate that one billion cubic feet of debris 
are carried to the sea by the streams annually. It is the 
heaviest tax that the farmer has to pay and most of it 
comes from areas from which the forests should never 
have been c,ut. 

This sediment carried by the streams does the greatest 
amount of damage in the irrigated districts. Here vast 
reservoirs are constructed at enormous expense, and to 
make the work economical these structures must last a 
long time. If the forests are cut away from the drainage 
basins of the streams that feed these reservoirs and erosion 
sets in, these expensive reservoirs are filled in a few 
years and their value destroyed. Not only is the reservoir 
destroyed, but the natural reservoir site — probably the 



312 The Farm Woodlot 

only one in the region — is destroyed and irrigation in a 
larger part of that district is rendered impossible. While 
this silting up of the reservoir is going on, the fine particles 
not deposited in the basin are carried down the ditches 
and spread over the fertile fields, dulling their productive 
capacity. 

These are the results of cutting forests as expressed in 
the terrns of erosion. A well-placed forest prevents these 
results. 

LESSENING OF EVAPORATION 

Distribution of stream flow and the prevention of erosion 
are not, however, the only influences that the forests 
exercise over the surrounding country. They lessen 
evaporation, which is a very active agent in drawing the 
moisture from the soil. T. Russell, Jr., of the United 
States Signal Service, made some experiments in 1888 
to learn the amount of evaporation on the western plains. 
During the year this evaporation amounted to 50-80 and, 
in some spots, even to 100 inches, while the rainfall over 
this area is 30-12 inches and less. "Thus in Denver, 
where the maximum annual precipitation may reach 20 
inches, the evaporation during one year was 69 inches. 
This deficiency of 49 inches naturally must be supplied 
by waters coming from the mountains, where the precipi- 
tation is large and the evaporation low. (On Pike's 
Peak alone there may be 45.6 minus 26.8 or 18.8 inches 
to spare.)" 

To understand better the application of this, we must 
examine the most important factors determining the 
amount of evaporation. The first of these factors to be 
considered is the soil cover. In experiments made in Ger- 



Forest Influences 313 

many during the months of July and August, 1883, to deter- 
mine the amount of evaporation from different soils, it was 
found that from 1000 square centimeters of bare ground 
5730 grams of water were evaporated, and that from 
the same area of similar soil covered with two inches of 
straw 575 grams were evaporated. This shows that the 
naked soil evaporated more than ten times as much as 
the covered soil. It is evident, then, that the soil covering 
has an important function in preventing evaporation. 

The forest cover acts in the same way. If the loss by 
evaporation from an open field be compared with that 
of a forest-covered ground, as a matter of course it will be 
less in the latter case, for the shade not only reduces the 
influence of the sun upon the soil, but also keeps the air 
under its cover relatively moist, therefore less capable 
of absorbing moisture from the soil by evaporation. 
Moreover, the forest cover above, which intercepts the 
direct rays of the sun and shades the ground, also assures 
us that the ground will be covered with a layer of dead 
branches, leaves, twigs and the like. 

The next point to be considered is the effect of wind 
velocity oii evaporation. The evaporation under the 
influence of the wind is dependent not only on the tem- 
perature and dryness of the wind, but also on its velocity, 
which being impeded, the rate of evaporation is reduced. 
T. Russell, Jr., experimented on this subject in 1887. 
His experiments were made with Riche's hygrometers 
whirled around on an arm 28 feet in length, the results of 
which were compared with those from a tin dish containing 
40 cubic centimeters of water exposed under shelter. 
The results show that, with the temperature of the air at. 



314 



The Farm Woodlot 



84° and a relative humidity of 50 per cent, evaporation 
at 5 miles an hour was 2.2 times greater than in a calm ; 
at 10 miles, 3.8 ; at 15 miles, 4.9 ; at 20 miles, 5.7 ; at 
25 miles, 6.1 ; and at 30 miles the wind would evaporate 




Fig. 62. — The results of wind erosion in the bad lands. 

6.3 times as much water as a calm atmosphere of the 
same temperature and humidity. 

When we consider that the average velocity of the winds 
that constantly sweep the western arid and subarid plains 
is from 10 to 15 miles, not rarely attaining a maximum of 
50 and more miles, the cause of the aridity is not far to 
seek. 



Forest Influences 315 

In Switzerland the change of temperature from the 
normal, experienced under the influence of the Foeher, 
or warm wind, has been noted as 28° to 31° F., and a re- 
duction in relative humidity of 58 per cent. A Foeher 
of twelve hours' duration has been known to "eat up" 
entirely a snow cover of two and one-half feet. In Denver, 
a Chinook has been known to induce a rise in temperature 
of 57° F. in twenty-four hours (of which 36° in five minutes), 
while the relative humidity sank from 100 to 21 per cent. 

Anything that lessens the velocity of the wind lessens 
evaporation : hence the influence of the forest. Any one 
who has been in the heart of a dense forest knows that the 
severest wind is not felt there. This is because the trees 
impede the velocity of the wind, and consequently evapora- 
tion in the forest is less. As one approaches the windward 
side of the forest, one feels the wind more and more. 
This shows that the degree of influence that the forest 
exerts on the wind is in direct proportion to the size and 
density of the forest. But even the narrow windbreaks 
and shelter belts exert a very appreciable influence. 

King has found in experiments made in Wisconsin that 
the influence of even a thin stand of woodland on the rate 
of evaporation was considerable. In one experiment made 
in the month of May, the instruments were so placed as 
to measure the evaporation to the leeward of a scant 
hedgerow 6 to 8 feet high, containing a few trees 12 
feet high and many open gaps. It was found that 
at 300 feet from the hedge the evaporation was 30.1 per 
cent greater than at 20 feet, and at 150 feet it was 7.2 
per cent less than at 300 feet. The experiment was made 
during a moist north wind. It is sufficiently evident, 



316 The Farm Woodlot 

therefore, that even a thin hedgerow exerts an influence 
that can readily be measured. In fact, the presence or 
absence of protecting belts of trees under the conditions 
often existing on the prairies may make a difference be- 
tween a good and a poor crop. All who are acquainted 
with our prairie regions know that great damage is often 
done to wheat, corn and other crops by the hot southwest 
winds which are likely to occur in the growing months. 
In Kansas and Nebraska in the summer of 1894, im- 
mense tracts of corn, fully tasseled out, were killed by 
such winds. At the same time it was noticed that when 
corn was protected by trees or slopes of land, or when the 
humidity of the wind was increased by passing over 
bodies of water or clover fields, the injury was greatly 
lessened. King found that an oak grove 12 to 15 feet 
high exerted an appreciable effect in a gentle breeze at a 
distance of 300 feet. 

The records show that in southwestern Minnesota in the 
dry years of 1910-11 many of the grain fields were com- 
pletely burned up with the exception of a narrow strip 
north of the windbreaks. The yield from these strips was 
sufficient to furnish seed grain for the whole farm, and in 
one season the windbreaks more than paid rent on the 
land they had occupied throughout their existence. 

At the Dominion Experiment Station in Assiniboia, 
Saunders found on one occasion that windbreaks exerted 
an appreciable influence at 50 to 80 feet to leeward for 
every foot in height, but this was during a very severe 
wind. The greater the velocity of the wind, the farther 
the influence of the windbreak is felt. It probably may 
be laid down as a general rule that windbreaks will exert 



Forest Influences 317 

an appreciable influence for at least one rod for every 
foot in height. 

It may not be necessary to state that the damage done 
to crops by the cold, dry winter winds is mainly due to 
rapid evaporation, and that plants are liable to suffer 
as much by winter drought as by summer drought. 
This is certain, that since summer and winter drought, 
that is, rapid evaporation due to continuous dry winds, 
is the bane of the farmer on the plains, rationally disposed 
timber belts will do much to increase available water 
supply by reducing evaporation. 

The exact difference in the rate of evaporation in the 
forest and in the open country from all causes is not known 
in this country, but experiments in Bavaria show the 
rate in the open field to be six and one half times that in a 
deciduous forest. In this connection we must consider 
the hot winds that so often cause injury to farm crops 
in Kansas, Nebraska and the Dakotas. These are often 
ascribed to the ''staked" plains, whence, taking a north- 
easterly direction, they draw all the moisture from the 
vegetation with which they come in contact. The view 
has also been presented that they have their origin on the 
Pacific coast, ascend the Rocky Mountains, lose their 
moisture and descend on the eastern slopes. But all 
theories that ascribe their origin to a distant source are 
inadequate to explain their phenomena. For example, 
all who are acquainted with these winds know that they 
blow only during very dry weather, when the earth is 
heated very hot, that a good rain speedily brings them 
to an end, and that they blow only during the day time, 
commencing about 9 a.m. and continuing until sundown. 



318 The Farm Woodlot 

This daily movement is often constant for several weeks, 
showing that there is evidently some connection between 
them and the course of the sun. For these reasons, and 
others, the best authorities unite in attributing them to 
local origin. 

George C. Curtiss describes the process of the production 
of a typical hot wind as follows: ''The necessary con- 
ditions are those of the 'warm wave,' namely, a diminishing 
pressure to the northward, producing southerly winds 
which initially elevate the temperature above the normal. 
A cloudless sky favors an intense insolation, as a result 
of which the dry ground is soon raised to an extreme 
temperature, and the air is heated from it by radiation, 
reflection and conduction. The resulting diminution of 
density due to the rise of temperature furnishes impetus 
to previously existing horizontal currents, and by 10 
o'clock in the morning the hot wind is fully developed. 
Hundreds of miles of hot dry earth contribute to maintain 
and feed the current, and gathering strength as the sun 
mounts higher, the hot wind sweeps over the defenceless 
prairie. Neither hills nor forests rise in its path to break 
its power or dispute its sway, and with no enemy save the 
tardy rain cloud, the fetid blast sucks out the life sap of 
the growing grain. It will be readily seen then that each 
of the states, Kansas, Nebraska and North and South 
Dakota, develops its own hot winds and cannot charge 
them to the account of its neighbors." 

Since, then, these hot winds are of such origin, it is 
clear that windbreaks at frequent intervals on the prairie 
farms would prevent their formation. The increased 
humidity of the air in the immediate neighborhood of the 



Forest Influences 319 

windbreak and the physical obstacle presented would 
counterbalance the superheating of the intervening 
space. These same groves and shelter belts that prevent 
evaporation and drying winds also perform several 
other important functions. They prevent the drifting 
of the sand and snow. This property of shelter belts 
has been almost completely ignored in this country but 
has been recognized in Europe for many years. In France, 
plantations have been used to check and successfully keep 
in place the enormous sand dunes which were and in some 
places still are, traveling inland from the coast. The root 
systems help to hold the sand in place and the upper parts 
of the tree reduce the force of the wind. On the steppes 
of Russia, where the tremendous sweep of the wind lays 
bare the winter crops over large areas, and piles the snow in 
great drifts where it is not wanted, low windbreaks have 
been used very effectively to keep the snow in place. 
It will not be long before such simple and natural devices 
will take the place of the expensive snow breaks now built 
by the railroads. 

Neither sand nor snow drifts in the forest and we should 
learn our lesson from nature. Moreover, the absence of 
strong winds in the interior of a forest makes it appear 
very probable that the planting of breaks and groves at 
short intervals would prevent the formation of tornadoes on 
the open prairie, — for these violent windstorms soon lose 
their force when they enter the forest. 

Another factor of forest influence well worth noticing 
is the improvement of the soil on which trees grow. Large 
amounts of soluble mineral salts are added to the surface 
soil by the falling of leaves and small twigs, which decay 



320 The Farm Woodlot 

and give up their mineral content. This mineral matter is 
either taken from the air by the leaves themselves or drawn 
up from the ground by the roots. The roots of the trees 
pierce to the subsoil and bring up mineral foods that the 
roots of smaller plants would never reach. In the same 
way large amounts of humus are added to the soil and keep 
it porous and retentive of moisture and gases. The roots 
by their decay also open up the subsoil and let in air and 
moisture. In this way the surface soil is being continually 
improved. It has been estimated that after a sandy soil 
in New England is so exhausted that it will produce no 
other crop, it may be renewed to its original fertility and 
productiveness by the growth of trees on it for thirty years. 
This should always be kept in mind in locating the woodlot 
and in calculating the benefits to be derived from it. 



CHAPTER XV 
TABLES AND RULES 

RELATIVE HARDNESS OF WOODS 

Taking shell bark as the highest standard of our forest 
trees, and calling that 100, other trees will compare as 
follows (Scribner's Lumber and Log Book) : 

Shell Bark Hickory .100 

Pignut Hickory 96 

White Oak 84 

White Ash .......... 77 

Dogwood .......... 75 

Scrub Oak . . . . 73 

White Hazel . 72 

Apple Tree . 70 

Red Oak . 60 

White Beech 65 

Black Walnut 65 

Black Birch 62 

Yellow Oak 60 

White Elm .......... 58 

Hard Maple 56 

Red Cedar 56 

Wild Cherry 55 

Yellow Pine 54 

Chestnut 52 

Yellow Poplar . 51 

Butternut 43 

White Birch 43 

White Pine 30 

y 321 



322 



The Farm Woodlot 



TABLE OF TREES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF FUEL VALUE 
AND WEIGHT OF DRY WOOD ^ 

(Green's Forestry in Minnesota) 



Names 



Shellbark Hickory . 
Hop Hornbeam . . . 
Juneberry .... 
Bitternut Hickory . . 
White Oak .... 

Bur Oak 

Locust 

Hackberry .... 
Blue Beech .... 
Cork Elm .... 
Green Ash .... 
Scarlet Oak .... 
Slippery Elm ... 
Kentucky Coffee Tree 
Sugar Maple . . . . 
Norway Maple . . . 
Honey Locust . . . 

Red Oak 

Yellow Birch . . . 
White Ash .... 
White Elm .... 
European White Birch 

Black Ash 

Tamarack 

Red Ash 

Red Maple .... 
Black Walnut . . . 



Approximate 


Specific Gravitv 


Relative Fuel 


OF Absolutely 


Value 


Dry Wood 


83.11 


0.8372 


82.43 


.8284 


77.95 


.7838 


74.74 


.7552 


74.39 


.7470 


74.06 


.7453 


72.96 


.7333 


72.08 


.7287 


72.26 


.7286 


72.20 


.7263 


70.71 


.7117 


70.82 


.7095 


68.98 


.6956 


68.88 


.6934 


68.75 


.6916 




.6800* 
.6740 


66.86 


66.04 


.6621 


65.34 


.6553 


65.16 


.6543 


64.54 


.6506 




.6400* 
.6318 


62.72 


62.16 


.6318 


61.99 


.6215 


61.65 


.6178 


60.91 


.6115 



1 In this table the figures relating to North American species have been 
taken directly from or calculated from data in Sargent's "Silva of North 
America " and the report of the tenth census, and those relating to Euro- 
pean species are from various European sources. 

* Air dried. 



Tables and Rules 



323 



TABLE OF TREES — Continued 



Names 



Canoe Birch . . . 

Red Mulberry . . 
Wild Black Cherry 

River Birch . . . 

Austrian Pine . . 

Silver Maple . . 

Scotch Pine . . . 
Douglas Spruce 

Wild Red Cherry . 

Red Juniper . . 

Red Pine . . . , 

White Poplar . . 

Jack Pine . . . . 

Bull Pine . . . , 

Norway Spruce . , 

Largetooth Poplar . 

Speckled Alder . , 

Black Spruce . . 

Ohio Buckeye . . 

Basswood . . . 

Chestnut . . . 

White Willow . . 

Black Poplar . . 

Boxelder . , . . 

Hemlock . . . . 
Hardy Catalpa . 

Balm of Gilead . . 

Butternut . . . 

White Spruce . . 

Aspen 

Cottonwood . . . 

White Pine . . . 

Balsam Fir . . . 

Blue Spruce . . . 

White Fir . . . 

Balsam Poplar . . 

Arborvitse . . . 



Approximate 

Relative Fuel 

Value 



59.40 
58.56 
58.14 
57.42 

52.52 

51.53 
50.03 
49.11 
48.41 

47.50 
46.99 

46.11 
45.88 
45.71 
45.03 
45.00 
44.95 



42.82 
42.20 
41.48 
41.42 
40.66 
40.38 
40.10 
38.52 
38.47 
38.02 
37.26 
36.07 
36.11 
31.53 



Specific Gravity 

OP Absolutely 

Dry Wood 



.5955 

.5898 

.5822 

.5762 

.5700* 

.5269 

.5200* 

.5157 

.5023 

.4926 

.4854 

.4800* 

.4761 

.4715 

.4700* 

.4632 

.4607 

.4584 

.4542 

.4525 

.4504 

.4500* 

.4500* 

.4358 

.4239 

.4165 

.4161 

.4086 

.4051 

.4032 

.3889 

.3854 

.3819 

.3740 

.3638 

.3635 

.3164 



324 



The Farm Woodlot 



WEIGHTS OF CORDWOOD 
(Scribner's Lumber and Log Book) 





Lb. 


Carbon 


1 Cord of Hickory 


4468 


100 


Hard Maple 


2864 


58 


Beech 


3234 


64 


Ash 


3449 


79 


Birch 


2368 


49 


Pitch Pine 


1903 


43 


Canada Pine 


1870 


42 


Yellow Oak 


2920 


61 


White Oak 


1870 


81 


Red Oak 


3255 


70 


Lombardy Poplar . . . 


1775 


41 


LAND MEASUI 


IE 




10 Rods by 16 Rods 


1 Acre 




8 Rods by 20 Rods 


1 Acre 




5 Rods by 32 Rods 


1 Acre 




4 Rods by 40 Rods 


1 Acre 




5 Yards by 968 Yards 


1 Acre 




10 Yards by 484 Yards 


1 Acre 




20 Yards by 242 Yards 


1 Acre 




20 Yards by 121 Yards 


1 Acre 




220 Feet by 198 Feet 


1 Acre 




110 Feet by 396 Feet 


1 Acre 




60 Feet by 726 Feet 


1 Acre 




120 Feet by 363 Feet 


1 Acre 




300 Feet by 145.2 Feet 


1 Acre 




400 Feet by 108.9 Feet 


1 Acre 





Tables and Rules 325 

WEIGHT PER 1000 FEET OF SEASONED LUMBER 
KIND LB. KIND LB. 

Ash ...;... 3550 Poplar 3056 

Cedar 2925 Willow 2780 

Cypress 3350 Locust 3800 

Beech 4000 Norway Spruce . . . 2760 

Cherry 3720 Hemlock 2350 

Birch 2950 Hickory 3960 

Dogwood 3930 Walnut 3690 

Elm 3220 Pitch Pine ..... 4150 

Butternut 1960 Red Pine 3075 

Chestnut 3170 Yellow Pine .... 2890 

Maple ...... 4000 White Pine 2880 

Oak 3675 

WELL-SEASONED FUEL 
(Scribner's Lumber and Log Book) 

"The best time to cut, haul and prepare wood for fuel 
is in the comparative leisure of the winter, and where 
wood is used for fuel it should be thoroughly dried, as 
in its green and ordinary state it contains 25 % of water ; 
the heat to evaporate which is necessarily lost ; therefore, 
the burning of green wood is greatly wasteful. 

''A log of unseasoned wood weighing, say 100 lbs., will 
weigh, when dry, only 66 lbs. What now has it lost? 
any combustible matter? anything that will warm your 
house or cook your food ? No ! it has lost 34 lbs. of water. 
If about one-third the weight of green wood is water, then 
there are 1443 lbs. of water in a cord. This has to be made 
into steam before the wood can be burned. By drying the 
wood most of the water is expelled and there is little loss of 
heat in the drying as it burns. Now, it costs about 
$2.00 to work up a cord of wood for the stove after it is 



326 The Farm Woodlot 

hauled to the wood pile, and it makes a difference that 
anyone can calculate, whether a cord of wood burned 
green lasts 20 days, or burned dry lasts 30 days. A solid 
foot of green elm wood weighs 60 to 65 lbs., of which 30 to 
35 lbs. is sap or water. Beech wood loses one-eighth to 
one-fifth its weight in drying ; oak, one-quarter to two- 
fifths. Therefore, get the winter's wood for fuel or kin- 
dlings and let it be seasoned as soon as possible, and not 
have a daily tussle with sissling firebrands and soggy wood." 

CORDWOOD ON AN ACRE 
(Scribner's Lumber and Log Book) 

" To estimate the quantity of cord wood on an acre of 
woodland requires experience. A person who has been 
engaged in clearing land and cutting wood could give a 
very close estimate at a general glance, but other persons 
would make the wildest guesses. An inexperienced per- 
son may proceed as follows : measure out four square rods 
of ground ; that is, 33 feet each way, and count the trees, 
averaging the cubic contents as nearly as possible of the 
trunks, and adding one-fourth of this for the limbs. Then, 
as 128 cubic feet make a cord, and the plot is one-fortieth of 
an acre, the result is easily reached. 

" Fairly good timber land should yield a cord to every 
four square rods. A tree two feet in diameter and 30 feet 
high to the limbs, will make a cord of wood if it is growing 
in close timber, and the limbs are not heavy. If the limbs 
are large and spreading, such a tree will make Ij to 1| 
cords. A tree one foot in diameter will make one-fourth 
as much as one twice the diameter. In estimating it is 
necessary to remember this fact. 



Tables and Rules 327 

" The estimates given to the Department of Agriculture 
in different states are as follows, according to the ' Maine 
Farmer ' : 

" Several counties in Maine, 30 to 40 cords per acre. In New 
Hampshire, average yield 20 to 40 cords per acre. In Vermont, 
the forest yields 25 to 50 cords per acre. In Rhode Island, 
about 30 cords per acre. In Connecticut, sprout land yields 
about 25 cords per acre every 25 years. In New York, 30 to 
60 cords per acre. In Delaware, well-set second-growth wood 
lands yield 30 to 40 cords per acre. In Maryland, 30 to 40 cords. 
In Oregon, however, the yield of the evergreens and oaks is per- 
fectly astounding, some counties estimated as high as 300 to 600 
cords per acre." 

SHAPE OF THE AXE 

(Scribner's Lumber and Log Book) 

" The form of the edge of a chopping-axe should be de- 
termined by the purpose for which that tool is intended. 
When an axe is to be employed more for scoring timber 
than for chopping firewood, the form of the cutting edge 
should be nearly straight from one corner of the bit to the 
other, with the very corners rounded off so that the axe 
will not stick badly in the timber. The object of having 
the axe nearly straight on the cutting edge is to enable 
the chopper to score fully up to the line without hacking 
the timber beyond the line. When the bit of the axe 
is what choppers term very circular, it is unfit to score 
timber with, as the most prominent part of the cutting 
edge will hack the surface of the timber a half inch or more 
beyond the line. But by scoring with an axe that has 
nearly a straight edge, but few hacks may be seen after 
the timber has been hewed. A good chopping-axe should 



328 



The Farm Woodlot 



be rounded on the cutting edge and weigh from 3| to 5 
pounds (some prefer hghter, others heavier), well hung on 
a tough, springy handle." 



RED OAK 



(Graves' Mensuration) 

Maximum Growth Trees in a Sprout Stand. (Based on the 
measurement of 53 trees near New Haven, Conn.) 



Age, Years 


Diameter BREAsrHiGH, 
Inches 


OUTSIDE B \RK, 


Height, Feet 


20 


3.5 




36 


30 


5.4 




47 


40 


7.3 




67 


50 


8.8 




65 


60 


10.4 




70 


70 


11.2 







PITCH PINE IN PIKE COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA 

(Graves' Mensuration) 

Rate of growth in diameter 



Age, 
Years 


Diameter 
Breast- 
high, 


Diameter inside the Bark 


1' High, 


11' High, 


21' High, 


31' High, 


41' High, 


51' High. 




Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


10 


2.7 


2.1 












20 


4.6 


4.0 


0.6 










30 


6.4 


5.8 


2.7 


0.8 








40 


8.0 


7.4 


4.6 


2.7 


0.2 






50 


9.4 


8.8 


6.2 


4.3 


2.0 






60 


10.5 


9.9 


7.4 


5.6 


3.6 


0.7 




70 


11.2 


10.6 


8.4 


6.7 


4.9 


2.5 




80 


11.6 


11.0 


9.1 


7.7 


6.0 


3.7 


0.6 


90 


11.9 


11.3 


9.6 


8.3 


6.8 


4.8 


2;0 


100 


12.1 


11.5 


10.0 


9.2 


7.4 


5.7 


3.2 



Tables and Rules 



329 



Rate of growth in volume 





Fuel-Wood 




Lumber 




Age, 

Years 


Whole Trees 


One-log 


Two-log 


Three-log 




Trees, Board 


Trees, Board 


Trees, Board 




Cu. Ft. 


Cords 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


40 


6.5 


0.073 








50 


10.6 


.119 


20.0 


29.7 




60 


13.4 


.161 


24.3 


36.9 


47.2 


70 


16.3 


.182 


28.0 


42.9 


53.8 


80 


17.7 


.198 


30.5 


47.1 


58.4 


90 


18.8 


.210 


32.3 


50.3 


61.9 


100 


19.6 


.219 


33.8 


52.6 


64.4 



RATE OF GROWTH OF CHESTNUT 

(Graves' Mensuration) 

(From the measurement of 68 trees in Connecticut.) 

A . Dominant trees in the forest 



Age, 

Years 



10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 



Dl\ METER 

ON SruMP 

INSIDE 

Bark, 
Inches 



2.1 

5.4 

8.7 

11.45 

13.7 



Diameter 
Breast- 
high OUT- 
SIDE Bark, 
Inches 



2.1 

5.1 

7.8 

9.7 

11.3 

12.5 



Diameter 
AT 10 Ft. 

ABOVE 

Stump, in- 
side Bark, 
Inches 



1.35 
4.3 
6.9 
8.9 
10.6 
11.9 



Diameter 
AT 20 Ft. 

above 
Stump, in- 
side Bark, 

Inches 



0.3 
3.4 
6.1 
8.0 
9.5 
10.7 



Diameter 
AT 30 Ft. 

above 
Stump, in- 
side Bark, 

Inches 



0.9 
3.7 
5.8 
7.25 

8.55 



Diameter 
AT 35 Ft. 

above 
Stump, in- 
side Bark, 

Inches 



2.9 
5.0 
6.5 

7.8 







B. 


Trees in 


the open 






10 


3.0 


3.0 


2.2 








20 


7.8 


7.4 


5.9 


4.5 


2.5 




30 


13.2 


11.5 


9.8 


8.0 


6.0 




40 


18.5 


15.3 


13.2 


11.0 


7.9 




50 


23.4 


18.5 


15.9 


13.4 


11.2 





330 



The Farm Woodlot 



RATE OF GROWTH OF RED CEDAR 

(Graves' Mensuration) 

(Based on the measurement of 23 trees near New Haven, Conn.) 

A . Trees in the open 



Age, 

Years 


Diameter inside 

Bark on Stump, 

Inches 


Diameter inside 

Bark at 6 Ft. 

above Stump, 

Inches 


Diameter inside 

Bark at 12 Ft. 

above Stump, 

Inches 


Diameter in- 
side Bark at 
18 Ft. above 

Stump, Inches 


30 
40 
50 


5.5 
6.8 

7.8 


4.0 
5.1 
5.9 


2.3 
3.5 
4.5 


1.6 
2.6 
3.6 





B. Crowded trees, hut not overtopped 


30 


4.8 


3.7 


2.3 


1.3 


40 


5.9 


5.0 


3.3 


2.1 


50 


6.8 


6.0 


4.1 


2.6 


60 


7.4 


6.6 


4.6 


2.8 



C. Trees free in youth, hut later on overtopped 



40 


4.4 


3.7 


2.7 


1.4 


50 


5.1 


4.5 


3.4 


2.2 


60 


5.5 


4.8 


3.7 


3.0 



COMPARATIVE RATE OF GROWTH IN HEIGHT AND DIAMETER 
OF CHESTNUT FROM THE SEED AND COPPICE 





(From the measurement of 1245 trees in Maryland) 




Height 


Growth each Ten 


Annual Growth each 


Age, 


Years, Height 


Ten Years 


Years 


Trees from 


Coppice, 


Trees from 


Coppice, 


Trees from 


Coppice, 




Seed, Feet 


Feet 


Seed, Feet 


Feet 


Seed, Feet 


Feet 


10 


7 


23 


7 


23 


0.7 


2.3 


20 


17 


42 


10 


19 


1.0 


1.9 


30 


33 


57 


16 


15 


1.6 


1.5 


40 


52 


69 


19 


12 


1.9 


1.2 


50 


64 


77 


12 


8 


1.2 


.8 


60 


73 


83 


9 


6 


.9 


.6 


70 


80 


87 


7 


4 


.7 


.4 


80 


84 


90 


4 


3 


.4 


.3 


90 


88 


92 


4 


2 


.4 


.2 


100 


91 


93 


3 


1 


.3 


.1 


110 


93 


94 


2 


1 


.2 


.1 


120 


95 


95 


2 


1 


.2 


1 



Tables and Rules 



331 



COMPARATIVE RATE — Continued * 





Diameter Breast- 
high 


Growth each Ten 
Years 


Annual Growth each 
Ten Years 


Years 


Trees from 
Seed, 
Inches 


Coppice, 
Inches 


Trees from 
Seed, 
Inches 


Coppice, 
Inches 


Trees from 
•Seed, 
Inches 


Coppice, 
Inches 


10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

110 

120 


0.8 

3.4 

6.0 

• 8.7 

11.2 

13.4 

15.4 

17.2 

18.8 

20.1 

21.0 

21.6 


3.8 
6.8 
9.3 
11.4 
13.4 
15.1 
16.7 
18.0 
19.2 
19.8 
20.4 
20.8 


0.8 

2.6 

2.6 

2.7 

2.5 

2.2 

2.0 . 

1.8 

1.6 

1.3 

.9 

.6 


3.8 

3.0 

2.5 

2.1 

2.0 

1.7 

1.6 

1.3 

1.2 

.6 

.6 

.4 


0.1 
.3 
.3 
.3 
.3 
.2 
.2 
.2 
.2 
.1 
.1 
.1 


0.4 
.3 
.3 
.2 
.2 
.2 

. 2 



NORMAL YIELD TABLE FOR SCOTH PINE. 

(Graves' Mensuration) 



QUALITY V 



Age, 
Years 


Number of 

Trees per 

Acre 


Basal 
Area, 
Sq. Ft. 


Average 

Height, 

Feet 


Diameter 
OF Aver- 
age Tree, 
Inches 


Yield 

PER 

Acre, 
Cu. Ft. 


Yield per 
Acre of 

Thinnings, 
Cu. Ft. 


Forest 

Form 

Factor 


10 






2.3 










20 






6.6 










30 


3200 


57.9 


14.8 


1.9 


186 




.225 


40 


2256 


81.2 


21.0 


2.6 


586 


57 


.349 


50 


1588 


93.3 


25.9 


3.3 


1058 


86 


.455 


60 


1152 


100.2 


30.2 


4.0 


1429 


86 


.485 


70 


828 


104.1 


34.1 


4.8 


1743 


86 


.492 


80 


640 


106.3 


38.0 


5.5 


1986 


71 


.486 


90 


520 


107.6 


41.3 


6.1 


2158 


57 


.479 


100 


428 


108.4 


44.3 


6.8 


2287 


57 


.472 



'From "Chestnut in Southern Maryland," by R. Zon, Bull. No. 53, 
U. S. Forest Service. 



332 



The Farm Woodlot 



YIELD OF FULLY STOCKED STANDS OF SECOND-GROWTH 
WHITE PINE ^ 



Age of Stand, 


Average 


Total Trees 


Merchantable 


Yield per 


Years 


Height, Feet 


PER Acre 


Trees per Acre 


Acre, Cords 


10 


5 


2220 






15 


9 


1700 






20 


14 


1600 






25 


22 


1310 


400 


11 


30 


32 


1090 


510 


21 


35 


45 


885 


620 


30 


40 


54 


690 


540 


38 


45 


62 


510 


460 


45 


50 


68 


400 


380 


53 


55 


72 


300 


300 


65 


60 


76 


260 


260 


80 



NORMAL YIELD TABLE FOR SPRUCE QUALITY III 
(Graves' Mensuration) 



Age, 
Years 


Number 
OF Trees 
per Acre 


Basal 
Area, 
Sq. Ft. 


Average 

Height, 

Feet 


Diameter 
OP Aver- 
age Tree, 
Inches 


Yield 

PER 

Acre, 
Cu. Ft. 


Yield per 
Acre of 

Thinnings, 
Cu. Ft. 


Forest 
Form 
Factor 


10 






3.6 










20 




61.3 


10.2 










30 


3300 


102.3 


19.4 


2.4 


672 




.331 


40 


1924 


140.8 


30.2 


3.7 


2115 


29 


.495 


50 


1216 


162.4 


42.0 


4.9 


3673 


129 


.534 


60 


840 


178.9 


52.2 


6.2 


5059 


229 


.539 


70 


628 


189.2 


61.0 


7.4 


6274 


243 


.539 


80 


500 


200.0 


68.9 


8.5 


7317 


229 


.534 


90 


424 


209.5 


73.6 


9.5 


8217 


200 


.528 


100 


380 


217.7 


78.4 


10.2 


8960 


•186 


.522 


110 


346 


224.2 


82.0 


10.9 


9632 


171 


.520 


120 


320 


229.8 


84.6 


11.8 


10232 


143 


.520 



iFrom^"The Natural Replacement of White Pine on Old Fields in 
New England," by S. N. Spring, Bull. No. 63, U. S. Forest Service, 1905. 



Tables and Rules 



333 



VOLUME TABLE FOR RED OAK 

(Graves' Mensuration) 

(Based on 130 trees measured at New Haven, Conn.) 



OS W" 


Height op Tree in Feet 


fr; « s 

^1- 


23 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 












PQ 




Merchantable Cordwood in Cubic Feet 




5 


1.23 


1.61 


1.91 


2.24 


2.55 


2.91 


3.12 


3.40 


6 


1.78 


2.31 


2.83 


3.31 


3.77 


4.22 


4.61 


5.04 


7 


. 




3.79 


4.40 


5.08 


5.68 


6.25 


6.79 


8 






4.88 


' 5.75 


6.56 


7.31 


7.99 


8.75 


9 










8.31 


9.27 


10.13 


10.97 


10 














12.62 


13.64 


11 














15.70 


16.87 



i§ 


Height of Tree in Feet 


^ W H 

lis 


60 


65 


70 


75 


80 


85 


90 










n 




Merchantable Cordwood in Cubic Feet 




5 


3.66 














6 


5.45 


5.81 


6.16 










7 


7.32 


7.81 


8.31 


8.78 


9.27 






8 


9.43 


10.07 


10.70 


11.31 


11.93 






9 


11.76 


12.62 


13.31 


14.04 


14.75 






10 


14.63 


15.62 


16.52 


17.42 


18.30 


19.20 




11 


18.04 


19.16 


20.18 


21.17 


22.15 


23.12 


24.06 


12 


12.33 


23.62 


24.90 


26.04 


27.15 


28.16 


29.14 


13 


27.33 


28.85 


30.34 


31.62 


32.98 


34.21 


35.40 



334 



The Farm Woodlot 





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b 
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DIAM. 
BREAST- 
HIGH, 
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Tables and Rules 



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336 



The Farm Woodlot 



VOLUME TABLES FOR PITCH PINE 

(Graves' Mensuration) 

Dominant trees 60 to 80 years old. 

(Based on 75 trees measured in Milford, Pa.) 





Fuel-Wood 


Diameter 

Bkeasthigh, 

Inches 


45'-54' Trees 


55'-64' Trees 


Tree of all 
Heights 




Cubic Feet 


9 


9.6 


15.7 


9.6 


10 


11.9 


15.7 


12.3 


11 


14.6 


17.8 


15.5 


12 


18.0 


20.5 


19.2 


13 


22.1 


23.9 


23.4 


14 


27.0 


28.1 


28.3 


15 




33.4 


34.0 


16 




39.8 


40.1 


17 




47.8 


47.3 



LUMBER AND FUEL-WOOD 



Diameter 
Breast- 
high, 
Inches 


One-log Trees 


Two LOG Trees 


Three-log Trees 


Board 

Feet 


Corda 


Board 

Feet 


Cords 


Board 
Feet 


Cords 


9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 


19 
22 
27 
33 
41 
52 


0.045 
.059 

.075 
.095 
.120 


28 

33 
41 
51 
64 
79 
97 
117 


0.023 
.028 
.033 
.039 
.047 
.057 
.069 


43 

52 

63 

76 

93 

114 

141 

177 


0.017 
.021 
.026 
.031 
.038 
.046 
.056 
.070 



Tables and Rules 



337 



VOLUME TABLE FOR CHESTNUT 

(Graves' Mensuration) 

Dominant trees about 50 years old. 

(Based on 99 trees measured in Milford Pa.) 





Height in Feet 


Diameter 

Breasthigh, 

Inches 


40 


45 


50 , 


55 


60 




Merchantable Cubic Feet 


6 


3.4 


3.8 


4.1 






T 


4.7 


5.2 


5.6 


6.0 




8 


6.1 


6.7 


7.3 


7.9 




9 


7.8 


8.5 


9.3 


10.0 




10 


9.6 


10.5 


11.4 


12.3 




11 


11.6 


12.7 


13.9 


14.9 


15.9 


12 




15.2 


16.5 


17.7 


19.0 


13 




17.8 


19.4 


20.9 


22.3 


14 




20.6 


22.3 


24.2 


25.9 


15 






25.8 


27.7 


29.7 



TABLE SHOWING RANGE OF DURABILITY OF FENCE 
POSTS IN MINNESOTA. (aIR-DRY) 

(From "Forestry in Minnesota," by Green) 

Red Cedar 30 years 

White Cedar (quartered 6-ineh face) 10-15 years 

White Oak (6-ineh round) 8 years 

Red and Black Oak 4 years 

Tamarack (Redwood) 9 years 

Elm 6-7 years 

Ash, Beech, Maple 4 years 

Black Walnut 7-10 years 

White Willow (6" in diameter, peeled and dried) . 6-7 years 



INDEX 



Abies, 42, 49. 

Acer, 53, 54. 

Agrilus anxius, 78. 

America, beginnings of forestry in, 
285. 
Forests of, in seventeenth cen- 
tury, 282. 

Annual rings, 32. 

Arbor day, 287. 

Arboriculture, 259. 

Artificial regeneration, 98. 

Ashes, key to, 53, 60, 133. 

Aspen, 53, 76. 

Axe, shape of, 327. 

Balsam, 263. 
Bark, 33. 
Beech, 53, 72. 

key to, 73. 
Betula, 53, 82. 
Birches, 53, 82. 

key to, 83. 
Board foot, 183. 
Board measure, 13. 
Bole, 31. 
Box elder, 53, 57. 

key to, 58. 
Broadcast sowing, 105. 
Broadleaves, 41. 

key to, 53. 
Bronze birch borer, 178. 
Brown-tail moth, 171. 
Brush, effect on tree growth, 100. 
Buds, function of, 34. 
Bureau of forestry, 289. 
Butternut, 53, 85. 

key to, 86. 



Cambium, 34. 

Canada, development of forests in, 
292. 

protection system in, 298. 
Canadian Association, 300. 

forests, 293. 

forest administration, 296. 

forest experiment station, 300. 

forest reserves, 299. 
Carbolineum, 257. 
Carbon in wood, 138. 
Care of trees after planting, 129. 
Carolina poplar, 80. 
Castanea, 53, 71. 
Cattle, grazing of, 162. 
Cedar, 263. 

white, 42, 51. 

red, 42, 52. 
Chestnut,. 53, 71. 

key to, 72. 

spacing of, 132. 

growth table, 329. 

volume table, 337. 
Clearing the farm, 24. 
Collecting seed, 107. 
College of Forestry at Toronto and 

Guelph, 300. 
Conifers, 41. 

key to, 42. 
Coniferous seedlings, 112. 
Coppice system, 96. 
Cord, 192. 
Cordwood,' weight of, 324. 

on an acre, 326. 
Cottonwood, 53, 76. 
Creosote, penetration of, 255. 
Crown, significance of shape, 39. 



339 



340 



Index 



Cruising, 197. 

methods, 200, 204. 
Cubic contents of log, 191. 
Cull, 204. 

table for center defects, 188. 

table for slab waste, 189. 
Cyllene robinise, 181. 

D. B. H., 199. 

Deciduous trees, definition, 29. 
Defects, allowance for, in logs, 187. 
Deforestation, results of, 301. 
Dendrology, definition of, 40. 
Dendroctinus ponderosa, 174. 

piceaperda, 175. 
Density of stand, 140. 
Division of forestry, 288. 
Durability of fence posts, 337. 

Economics of forests, 2. 
Elmleaf beetle, 177. 
Elms, 53, 73. 

key to, 75. 
Erosion, 308. 

Esthetic value of woodlot, 13. 
Euproctis abrysorrhora, 171. 
Europe, increased yield in, 140. 

status of forestry in, 282. 
Evaporation as affected by forests, 
312. 

and wind velocity, 313. 
Evergreens, 30. 

Fagus, 53, 72. 
Fall web-worm, 180. 
Famine, first timber, 279. 
Fence posts, durability of, 327. 

grades of, 184. 
Fertility increased by forests, 319. 
Feudal ownership, 279. 
Fire, 193. 

damage to young growth, 155. 

danger season, 156. 

causes of, 156. 
Fire breaks, 158, 159. 
Firefighting tools, 159. 



Firs, 42, 49. 
Floods, cause of, 304. 
Flower, function of, 35. 
Forester's work, explanation of, 291, 
Forests in development of country, 
2. 

of America in seventeenth cen- 
tury, 282. 

influence of, 301. 
Forest reserves, 288, 289. 
Forest tent-caterpillar, 179. 
Forestry, definition of, 1. 

development in Germany, 5. 

returns from, 5. 

beginnings of, in America, 285. 
Fraxinus, 53, 60. 
Frontier forests, 277. 
Fruit, function of, 35. 
Fuel value of woods, 322. 

well seasoned, 325. 

Galerucella luteola, 177. 
Germany, development of forestry 

in, 4. 
Gipsy moth, 170. 
Gleditsia, 53, 89. 
Goats, grazing of, 163. 
Grass sod, effect on tree growth, 

100. 
Grazing, 160. 
Group system, 96. 
Growth of sprouts ; of pitch pine, 
328. 

of chestnut, 329, 330. 

of red cedar, 330. 
Guelph, College of Forestry at, 300, 

Hackberry in mixture, 130, 131. 
Hardness of woods, 321. 
Heartwood, 33. 
Heeling in, 124. 
Height measure, 194. 
Hemlock, 42, 50. 
Hickories, 53, 87. 

key to, 88. 
Hicoria, see hickory. 



Index 



341 



Hill lands of New York, 8, 18. 
History of forest, 277. 
Hornbeam, 53, 84. 
Horses, grazing of, 165. 
Hough, Emerson, 288. 
Hypantria textor, 180. 

Increment, 32. 

Inexhaustible timber supply, 283. 
Influence of forest, 301. 
Insects, 168. 
Ironwood, 53, 84. 
key to, 84. 

Jack-pine lands in Lake States, 9. 
Joly de Lotbiniere, Sir Henri, 298. 
Juglans, 53, 85. 
Juniperus, 42, 51. 

Lake States, jack-pine lands in, 9. 
Land measures, table of, 324. 
Land, development of ownership, 
278. 

classification of, 5. 

basis of value, 6. 
Larch, 42, 46. 

key to, 47. 

spacing of, 132. 
Larix, 42-46. 
Lawn trees, choice of, 259. 

requirements of, 260. 
Leaf litter, effect on tree growth, 

101. 
Leaves, function of, 29. 
Life history of tree, 36. 
Locust borer, 181. 
Locusts, 53, 89. 

key to, 90. 
Log rule, 186. 

scale, 185. 
Lumber rule, 184. 

Malacosoma disstria, 179. 
Maples, 53, 54, 58. 

spacing of sugar, 132. 
Medullary rays, 32. 



Mensuration, 183. 
Mismanagement, 165. 
Moisture, effect on range, 99. 
Municipal forests, 282. 

National forests, 290. 

Natural regeneration, 91. 

Norway poplar, 79. 

Nursery practice, coniferous, 112. 

broadleaf, 119. 

cost of, 122. 

Oaks, 53, 64. 

key to blacks, 70. 

key to whites, 69. 

red, spacing of, 133. 
Ornamental groups, 261. 

planting, 259. 
Ornamental trees tabulated by 

species, 270, 276. 
Ostrya, 53, 84. 

Papineau rebellion, 296. 
Penetration of creosote, 255. 
Picea, 42, 47. 
Piling, 185. 

Pine-destroying beetle, 174. 
Pines, 42, 43. 

key to, 45. 
Pinus, see pines. 
Pitch pine, growth table, 328. 

volume table, 336. 
Pith rays, 32. 

Plantations, suitable mixtures in, 
130. 

returns from, 18. 
Planting, choice of methods of, 103. 

seed for. 111. 

care after planting, 126, 129. 

begun in Europe, 286. 
Poles, 185. 
Poplars, 53, 76. 

key to, 79. 
Populus, see poplars. 
Precipitation, influence of forest on, 
302. 



342 



Index 



Preparation of land for seeding, 102. 
Products of woodlot, 12. 
Protection, 153. 

systems of, in Canada, 298. 
Pruning, 266, 269. 

Quercus, 53, 64. 

Range of species, 98. 
Red cedar, growth table, 330. 
Red oak, volume table, 333. 
Regeneration, natural, 91. 

artificial, 98. 
Restrictions in use of wood. 280. 
Revenues from forests in Europe, 
14,281. 

from woodlots, 281. 
Roadside trees, 261. 
Robinia, 53, 89. 
Roots, function of, 30. 
Run-off, 302. 

Salix, 53, 80. 

Sapwood, 33. 

Scaler, 184. 

Scale stick, 186. 

Schools, development of forest, in 

Europe, 281. 
Scotch pine yield table, 331. 
Screen of trees, 262. 
Seasoned lumber 325. 
Seed collecting, 107. 

storing, 110. 

planting. 111. 

broadleaf, 120. 
Seed, selection of, 99. 
Seedbeds, see nursery. 
Seeding, 98. 

preparation for, 102. 

broadleaf, 105. 
Seedlings, identification, 36. 

protection in nursery, 117. 

transplanting, 118. 

broadleaf, 121. 

cost of, 122. 
Seed spots, 106. 



Selection system, 92. 
Sheep, grazing of, 164. 
Single tank treatment, 256. 
Soil requirements for forest, 22. 

effect on range, 99. 
Soil cover, 99. 
Sowing, see seeding. 
Spacing, 132. 
Spraying mixture, 171. 
Sprouts, 96. 

growth of, 328, 330. 
Spruce, 42, 47. 

key to, 49. 

as a screen, 263. 

spacing of, 132. 

yield table, 332. 

volume table, 334. 
Spruce-destroying beetle, 175. 
Stand table, 197. 
Standard, log measure, 191. 
Stem, function of, 31. 

analysis, 191. 
Strip system, 94. 
Storing seed, 110. 
Sunscald, 168. 
Sylvics, 41. 
Sylviculture, 40, 134. 

Tamarack, 42, 46. 

key to, 47. 
Thinning, 137, 140, 141, 142. 

time of, 143. 

improvement, 146. 

reproduction, 148. 
Thuja, 42. 51. 
Timber supply, 3. 

first famine, 279. 

culture act, 287. 

estimating, 202. 
Toronto, College of Forestry at, 

300. 
Transplanting conifers, 118. 

broadleaves, 121. 

large trees, 263. 
Treating posts, 255. 

cost, 256. 



Index 



343 



Tree, growth of, 29. 

life history of, 36. 
Trespass, 166. 
Trunk, 31. 

growth of, 32. 
Tsuga, 42, 50. 

Ulmus, 53, 73. 

Unprofitable farm lands, use of, 11. 
United States Forest Service, 287, 
289. 

Valuation survey, 196. 
Volume table, 199. 

red oak, 333. 

spruce, 334. 

white pine, 335. 

pitch pine, 336. 

chestnut, 337. 

Walnuts, 53, 85. 

key to, 86. 
Weight of dry wood, 322. 

seasoned lumber, 325. 

cordwood, 324. 



White pine, yield table, 332. 

volume table, 335. 
WUlow, 53, 80. 

as a screen, 263. 
Windbreak, value of woodlot as, 
13. 

location of, 22. 

benefit from, 22. 
Windfall, 167. 
Winds, hot, 318. 

how formed, 318. 
Woodlot, products of, 12. 

increases value of farm, 14. 

revenues from, 14. 

place in farm management, 15. 

location of, 19. 

percentage farm in, 21. 

weeding of, 134. 

Yield, increased, of forests in Eu- 
rope, 140. 

of woodlot, 14. 
Yield tables, Scotch pine, 331. 

white pine, 332. 

spruce, 332. 



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treatise concerning farm structures which will appeal not only to the 
teacher who desires to present the subject to his students in a straightfor- 
ward and practical way, but to the progressive farmer who recognizes the 
advantages of good farm buildings. The popular literature on this subject 
consists mainly of compilations of plans accompanied by criticisms of more 
or less value, or of discussions of farmsteads too expensive or impractical 
to be applied to present ordinary conditions. The elimination of these 
faults has been among the objects of the author in the writing of this text. 

The development of the suliject is manifestly the most logical, begin- 
ning with a description of building materials, followed by a discussion of 
the basic methods employed in simple building construction, then present- 
ing typical plans of various farm buildings in which the principles of con- 
struction and arrangement have been applied. Descriptions of the inore 
essential requirements in the way of equipment and farm-life conveniences 
are appended. The illustrations have been prepared with the object of 
making them truly illustrative and of aid in the understanding of the sub- 
ject matter which they accompany. Comparatively few building plans are 
included, since most bull ing problems possess so many local requirements 
that a general solution is impossible; however, the plans presented are 
typical, and are so suggestive in presenting fundamental principles that a 
study of them will aid in the solution of any particular individual problem. 

It is not intended that the study of this text will produce an architect; 
but it is hoped that it will provide the student with a sufficient knowledge 
of building operations to enable him, with some knowledge of carpentry, 
to erect his own minor structures and to differentiate between good and 
bad construction in larger ones. 



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